This paper reports measurements of black carbon (BC) and total carbon (TC)(TC= BC+ organic carbon) in the lower troposphere in Nairobi and the towns of Nanyuki and Meru in Kenya. The rural sites of Nanyuki and Meru are both located on the equator on the …

Few chemotherapeutic agents are available for the medical management of hydatid disease caused by the parasite Echinococcus granulosus. In order to test the potential of oxfendazole for the treatment of infection with this parasite, nine infected goats and four sheep were given oxfendazole twice weekly at a dose of 30 mg/kg of body weight for 4 weeks and monitored by ultrasound for an additional 4 weeks. Efficacy was finally evaluated by postmortem examination, including determination of protoscolex viability and cyst wall histology. In treated animals, protoscolices were dead or absent in 97% of cysts from oxfendazole-treated animals compared to 28% of cysts from untreated control animals. On postmortem examination, 53% of cysts from treated animals were found to be grossly degenerate. A sample of those cysts that appeared potentially viable all demonstrated evidence of severe damage to the cyst wall. By light microscopy, cysts showed severe disorganization of the adventitial layer with invasion of inflammatory cells and in some cases frank necrosis with no apparent adventitial layer. The follow-up period for assessment of the drug's ability to cause complete degeneration and resorption of cysts was relatively short. This study, however, indicates that oxfendazole is at least as effective as and is easier to administer than albendazole for the treatment of hydatid disease.

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Objectives: To assess the blood pressure characteristics of dwellers of Kibera slum. Design:
Descriptive crossectional study Setting: Kibera slum, Nairobi, Kenya. Patients and Methods: The
blood pressure, resting pulse rate and BMI was assessed among 400 dwellers of Kibera slum in
Nairobi, Kenya. The data collected was analysed for frequency and means using a statistical
program SPSS. Results: The mean blood pressure was 122/71mmHg. Systolic blood pressure was
higher in males than in females (p=0.001). Fifty two (13%) participants, 17.8% of males and 11.1%
of the females were hypertensive. Outstanding factors associated with hypertension included
male gender (p=0.001), a body mass index (BMI) > 25 and increasing age. Seven of the patients
knew they were hypertensive and 5 were on antihypertensive therapy. Conclusions: Prevalence of
hypertension in these urban slum dwellers is comparable to that reported in rural settings
elsewhere in Africa. There is need for public education concerning management of BMI and
hypertension starting early in life and regular screening of people at risk in the urban slum
dwellings.

This study was carried out over a period of ten weeks between June and August 2011 at the KNH theatres. A total of 370 patients scheduled for elective surgery whose blood had been crossmatched prior to being taken to theatre were recruited into the study. Majority of requests in the study period were requests for whole blood while requests for other blood products were rarely made. Most surgical teams made requests for two units of blood for the adults for most surgical procedures. Cross-matching of one unit of blood per patient however predominated followed by cross-matching of two units per patient. Single unit transfusions for adult patients were the most common despite requests for two units being the majority. However in the category of children the average blood volume transfused was 18.9mllKg. The overall Cross-match to Transfusion ratio during the study period was 1.42. Most of the blood that was cross-matched (64.8%) was transfused of the patients was transfused to them. The mean estimated duration blood products were kept out of the cold chain was 17 minutes. The methods mainly used to reduce the need for pre-operative blood transfusions included use of diathermy, pre-operative hemodilution and use of hypotensive anesthesia. The main transfusion triggers were estimated blood loss, conjuctival pallour and change in haemodynamic status. In the study subjects above 14 years, the mean estimated blood loss triggering transfusion was 750 mls. The study established that all patients received peri-operative fluids with crystalloid infusions predominating. There was a highly significant relationship( P

The arterial blood supply, position, and length of the appendix were studied 103 Zambian cadavers. In 39.8%, more than one appendicular artery was found. In position, 43.6% were pelvic, and 20.3% retro-cecal. The average length of the appendix was 12.0 cm in males, and 11.4 cm in females. The prevalence of the dual blood supply and pelvic position, may partly explain the recorded rarity of appendicitis among Africans.

The hemodynamic responses to exercise have been studied to a great extent over the past decades, and an exaggerated blood pressure response during an acute exercise bout has been considered as an indicator of cardiovascular risk. Obesity is a major factor influencing the blood pressure response to exercise since evidence indicates that the arterial pressure response to exercise is exacerbated in obese compared with lean adults. Signs of augmented responses (such as an exaggerated blood pressure response) to physical exertion appear early in life (from the prepubertal years) in obese individuals. Understanding the mechanisms that drive the altered hemodynamic responses during exercise in obese individuals and prevent the progression to hypertension is vitally important. This paper focuses on the evidence linking obesity with alterations of the autonomic nervous system and discusses the potential mechanisms and consequences of the altered sympathetic nervous system behavior in obese individuals at rest and during exercise. Furthermore, this paper presents the alterations in the reflex regulatory mechanisms (&\#8220;exercise pressor reflex&\#8221; and baroreflex) in obese children and adults and addresses the effects of training on obesity-related disturbances.

This study examined the relationship between Board diversity and financial performance of firms listed in the Nairobi Stock Exchange. Data on Boards’ age, gender, educational qualifications, study specialization, and board specialization as well as the companies’ financial performance were obtained from 40 companies using a structured questionnaire. Using the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, the results show that there is a weak positive association between board diversity and financial performance. Overall, the results indicate a statistically not significant effect of board diversity on financial performance except for the independent effect of board study specialization on dividend yield. The results partially concur with agency and resource dependency theories of corporate governance as well as similar empirical studies. Ensuing implications for theory, policy and practice as well as methodology are also discussed.
Key Words: Board of Directors’ Diversity, Financial Performance, Listed Firms, Kenya

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The desire for self-mutilation in the absence of any discernible psychopathology is relatively rare. Self-mutilation is most commonly a manifestation of an underlying psychopathology such as depression, schizophrenia, personality disorder, transexuality, body dysmorphic disorder and factitious disorder. In this article, a case in which a 29-year-old single Kenyan lady of African origin demanded a surgical operation to modify and reduce the size of her external genitalia is presented. Although female genital mutilation is still widespread in the country, this case is of interest in that the woman did not seek the usual circumcision but sought to specifically reduce the size of her labia minora so that she could feel like a normal woman. The unique challenges in her management are discussed. Possible aetiological factors in patients who demand surgical removal or modification of parts of their bodies without an obvious cause is discussed.

Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Long term anti-epileptic drug use causes multiple abnormalities in calcium and bone metabolism that have been documented in both institutionalised and ambulatory patients.
OBJECTIVE:
To assess bone metabolism in ambulatory females of reproductive age, on antiepileptic drugs.
DESIGN:
Cross sectional comparative study.
SUBJECTS:
Ambulatory females in reproductive age group with epilepsy and on regular follow up were compared to healthy females of similar ages not on any treatment.
RESULTS:
The mean duration of treatment for epilepsy was eight years (+/- 6.3). Majority of the patients were on enzyme inducing drugs like phenobarbital, phenytoin, carbamazepine and valproate, either alone or in combination with non-enzyme inducers like lamotrigine (98.2%). There was a significantly lower mean serum calcium and a higher alkaline phosphatase level among the patients (P = 0.002 and 0.0001 respectively) than among the comparators. The urinary marker of bone loss (mean urine calcium excretion) was also significantly raised among the patients (P=0.003). The mean lumbar BMDT-score results were not significantly different in the two groups.
CONCLUSIONS:
Long-term anti-epileptic drug use significantly affects biochemical parameters of bone metabolism. These effects on bone biochemistry markers were not reflected in lumbar spine BMD in this study.

Long term anti-epileptic drug use causes multiple abnormalities in calcium and bone metabolism that have been documented in both institutionalised and ambulatory patients.

Thirty children presenting with Battered Baby Syndrome over a five year period were studied retrospectively. The male:female ratio was 1:1.1. The majority (60%) were aged 0-11 months. 14 children (46%) were abandoned while six (20%) had multiple fractures, six (20%) multiple bruises and bites, and four (13.3%) had other forms of abuse. Twelve (40%) children were malnourished while eight of the babies (26.6%) were small for gestational age. Children were most frequently brought to hospital by the police or their mothers. The children were most frequently abused by their mothers either through abandonment or through physical battering. Details of mothers of the 14 abandoned children were unknown. Among the mothers of the other children, nine mothers were single, seven married and living with spouses and one stepmother. Two children (6.6%) died while the fate of two others was not known. Three children were sent home without intervention of the social worker, while twenty three children were discharged following intervention of the social worker; fourteen sent home, nine to a childrens' home and one through the juvenile court.

This book is an epic account of life, touching on diverse facets of existence with the Buddhist answers to the riddles of life and those provided by modern science towards the same or similar riddles. In this book, Ikeda catches and conveys to us the impression that living a fulfilling life is attainable, and that the splendour of living such a life has an immutable value that transcends the bounds of the physical death. Fleeting between the past, present and a possible future, the book wrestles with the giant headaches of humankind through a systematic explication of the nature of the cosmos and life, the Buddhist view of life, and the question of life and death. All this is done with the exactitude of a physician carrying out a heart surgery, and with the eloquence of a young man wooing a fair maid. On the whole, the book reduces the recurrent headaches of man to quite curable ailments, no more serious than the common cold or constipation. With respect to the nature of the cosmos and life, the author sinks his teeth into such concepts as the body and the spirit, man and nature, eyes that can see life, the riddle of time and the essence of the cosmos. On the body and the spirit, the author addresses first and foremost, the strange phenomenon of life as it manifests itself in empirical situations

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This paper studies the problem of malaria control in irrigation and non-irrigation areas in Kenya. Empirical results show that in both areas, households' level of awareness of malaria as a health problem, including its cause, was very high. However, attempts to trace the direct effects of malaria upon income or upon agricultural production were not statistically important. This does not imply that malaria has no consequence on household welfare. It is possible that the model equations were mis-specified–aggregate variables (total family size, total family income) and failure to quantify land in the production relationships may have contributed to these results. In addition, poor separation of malaria as a disease, from malaria as an infection, may have underestimated the effect of the disease on production. Thirdly, labour substitution (hiring or within-family substitution) was not measured in this early study, but was taken into account in subsequent research. Finally, labour requirements in the annual crop production schedules and the co-relation between these labour requirements and the pattern of adult morbidity were not longitudinally monitored. Cross-section data would bias the findings, particularly in those areas where the peak transmission season is short, where the crop grown does not require major labour input during this transmission season, and where acquisition of immunity would reduce the clinical impact of malaria upon adult labour. These vulnerabilities in the specification of the model and the data collected, probably affect the results obtained. Our empirical work raises a number of interesting and important questions which should be taken into account in future research

Results of four years' studies from a number of hospitals in Kenya have shown that nosocomial infections in burns units are due to Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Through chromosomal DNA and plasmid DNA, the stain is highly resistant to sulphonamide ointment and other antibiotics. 90% of patients admitted in burns units get colonized or infected with MRSA. The strain prolongs the duration of patients in hospitals. The burns degenerate to second and third degree burns, thereby necessitating skin grafting. The environment has been found to be contaminated with this strain with some staff members having chronic throat infections. Minocycline was found to be effective in treating the infected staff members. Cleaning this environment with Sodium dichloroisocyanurate (precepts)/Sodium hypochlorite (JIK) reduced drastically the mechanical transmission of bacteria in the units. The duration of stay of the patient was reduced. This shows that MRSA which is spread in government and private hospitals can cheaply be controlled by the proper use of disinfectants, antiseptics, and use of effective antibiotics when necessary.

HTQO VJG increasing availability of parallel corpora. Processing the same text in two
different languages yields useful information on how words and phrases are translated from
a source language into a target language. To investigate this, a parallel corpus is typically
aligned by linking linguistic tokens in the source language to the corresponding units in the
target language. An aligned parallel corpus therefore facilitates the automatic

This paper describes a proof-of-the-principle experiment in which maximum entropy
learning is used for the automatic induction of shallow morphological features for the
resourcescarce Bantu language of Gıkuyu. This novel approach circumvents the limitations
of typical unsupervised morphological induction methods that employ minimum-edit
distance metrics to establish morphological similarity between words. The experimental
results show that the unsupervised maximum entropy learning approach compares

A systematic approach has been applied in the selection of suitable sites for borehole drilling in a quest to provide adequate water supply to a rural pastoral community in Lolmolok area. The study area lies in samburu district in Kenya and is bound by latitudes 0°56’21”N and 0°57’58”N and longitudes 36°34’42”E and 36°36’35”E. The geology of this area is comprised of tertiary volcanics. Basalts, which have weathered into residual black cotton soil, are underlain by phonolitic lavas and tuffs. The systemat-ic approach for the exploration of groundwater was followed to enable selection of an optimum drill site(s) within a quadrant with three-kilometer radius identified by the pas-toral community. The approach consisted of the following multi-steps:-
(i) Hydrogeological reconnaissance of the whole area, mapping different groundwa-ter potential areas on the basis of aerial photo interpretation;
(ii) Geophysical field surveys involving very low frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES).
(iii) Processing and interpretation of the data acquired in the field, which led to selection of suitable drill sites, indication of potential yield and depth of aquifers.
This paper describes the success of combined geophysical survey techniques in siting boreholes whose yield ranges between 5 m3/hr and 10 m3/hr.

Laboratoire d'Hematologie Moleculaire, Hopital St. Louis, Paris, France. We have defined transcriptional enhancing sequences inside the TCR-delta gene locus, using transient transfections with constructs containing DNA fragments cloned upstream to a reporter gene fused to a heterologous promoter. A 14-kb DNA region extending from the J delta 3 segment to 6 kb 3' to C delta was analyzed. We show the presence of positive regulatory sequences inside the J delta 3-C delta intron and have localized these sequences to two DNA fragments of approximately 300 and 258 bp. Analysis of cell specificity of the activation of such sequences demonstrates a T cell pattern for one of the two fragments. The nucleotide sequence of the T cell-specific element shows motifs sharing homology with previously described core enhancers.

The dravitic tourmalines associated with different types of rock from the tsavorite-bearing
metasedimentary Neoproterozoic sequence in Kenya, Tanzania, and Madagascar show two
ranges of boron isotopic compositions:(1) Tourmalines associated with tsavorite nodules
have homogenous 8113 values of-19.8 1 1.2 'llm that clearly involve continental evaporitic
material;(2) Tourrnalines from unmineralized rocks (elastic metasediments, metapegmatite,
and marble) have 8118 values between 45.9 and 40.356 “, which reflect a magmatic source
for the elastic tourmaline and probably an evaporitic one for tourmaline in marble.

We raised a mouse monoclonal antibody (5S) against the 'a' epitope of the Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) by selecting for binding of the hybridoma supernatant in conditions that usually destabilize protein-protein interactions. This antibody, which was protective in an in vitro assay, had a high affinity with a relative dissociation constant in the nanomolar range. It also displayed stable binding to antigen in conditions that usually destabilize antigen-antibody interactions, like 30% DMSO, 8 M urea, 4 M NaCl, 1 M guanidium HCl and extremes of pH. The variable regions of the antibody were cloned and expressed as an single chain variable fragment (scFv) (A5). A5 had a relative affinity comparable to the mouse monoclonal and showed antigen binding in presence of 20% DMSO, 8 M urea and 3 M NaCl. It bound the antigen in the pH range of 6-8, though its tolerance for guanidium HCl was reduced. Sequence analysis demonstrated a significant increase in the frequency of somatic replacement mutations in CDRs over framework regions in the light but not in the heavy chain. A comparison of the molecular models of the variable regions of the 5S antibody and its germ-line precursor revealed that critical mutations in the heavy and light chains interface resulted in better inter-chain packing and in the movement of CDR H3 and CDR L1 from their germline positions, which may be important for better antigen binding. In addition to providing a reagent for neutralizing for the virus, such an antibody provides a model for the evolution of stable high affinity interaction during antibody maturation.

The prediction of mineral deficiencies in grazing livestock requires good correlations between convenient markers of mineral status and animal health or productivity. Correlations are likely to become weaker in moving from animal to pasture to soil in pursuit of a predictor because of the many factors which influence mineral uptake at each interface. However, soils are the easiest to characterize and correlations might be improved by removing the effects of known sources of variation. The influence of botanical (pasture species), geographical (altitude) and pedological (bedrock type, soil pH and extractable mineral concentration) factors on mineral concentrations in dry season pasture was therefore assessed. Samples of topsoil and herbage were gathered from 135 sites on 84 farms in the Mt Elgon region of W. Kenya between January and March, 1987. The underlying parent bedrock was determined from 1:125,000 Geological survey maps and altitude from topographical maps. Botanical composition of the pasture sample was recorded. Soil pH and total (Se) or extractable (not Se) mineral concentrations were determined by standard methods as were total mineral concentrations in unwashed herbage. Distribution of principle botanical species and all bedrock types amongst the sample sites are indicated in Tables 1 and 2 respectively, together with the analytical results. Statistical analysis used a residual maximum likelihood (REML) model for unbalanced data sets.
Pasture concentrations of Ca, P and Cu were generally below the requirement of ruminants, Zn and Se were marginal while Co, Fe and Mn were adequate. Soil bedrock had little influence on herbage composition. Of the four macro-elements, only S was affected by geology, low values being found above TV and MS bedrock. By contrast, only P was not affected by species, Ss being low and PC usually high in macro minerals. Of the seven trace elements analysed, geology influenced only one (Cu); low values were again found above TV and Mfi but Cu availability to grazing ruminants would be relatively high because of the associated low S values. By contrast, only Se was unaffected by species, PC being rich in all but Mn. Soil bedrock had a greater influence on soil composition but correlations between soil and herbage usually accounted for less than 10% of the variation in pasture composition (max r value 0.5 for P): correlations within species were equally poor. The influence of species on herbage Co disappeared if herbage Fe was used as a covariate, suggesting that contamination by soil Co varied between species: however, the correlation with soil Co remained weak. Soil pH was generally low and its use as a covariate did little to improve soil/plant relationships. Herbage Cu increased and Se decreased in curvilinear relationships with altitude.
Mineral deficiencies were therefore likely to occur in grazing livestock, risk being influenced by botanical and topographical but not pedological factors.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)-1 protein modulates signaling by IFN-gamma by binding to the autophosphorylation site of JAK2 and by targeting bound JAK2 to the proteosome for degradation. We have developed a small tyrosine kinase inhibitor peptide (Tkip) that is a SOCS-1 mimetic. Tkip is compared in this study with the kinase inhibitory region (KIR) of SOCS-1 for JAK2 recognition, inhibition of kinase activity, and regulation of IFN-gamma-induced biological activity. Tkip and a peptide corresponding to the KIR of SOCS-1, ((53))DTHFRTFRSHSDYRRI((68)) (SOCS1-KIR), both bound similarly to the autophosphorylation site of JAK2, JAK2(1001-1013). The peptides also bound to JAK2 peptide phosphorylated at Tyr(1007), pJAK2(1001-1013). Dose-response competitions suggest that Tkip and SOCS1-KIR similarly recognize the autophosphorylation site of JAK2, but probably not precisely the same way. Although Tkip inhibited JAK2 autophosphorylation as well as IFN-gamma-induced STAT1-alpha phosphorylation, SOCS1-KIR, like SOCS-1, did not inhibit JAK2 autophosphorylation but inhibited STAT1-alpha activation. Both Tkip and SOCS1-KIR inhibited IFN-gamma activation of Raw 264.7 murine macrophages and inhibited Ag-specific splenocyte proliferation. The fact that SOCS1-KIR binds to pJAK2(1001-1013) suggests that the JAK2 peptide could function as an antagonist of SOCS-1. Thus, pJAK2(1001-1013) enhanced suboptimal IFN-gamma activity, blocked SOCS-1-induced inhibition of STAT3 phosphorylation in IL-6-treated cells, enhanced IFN-gamma activation site promoter activity, and enhanced Ag-specific proliferation. Furthermore, SOCS-1 competed with SOCS1-KIR for pJAK2(1001-1013). Thus, the KIR region of SOCS-1 binds directly to the autophosphorylation site of JAK2 and a peptide corresponding to this site can function as an antagonist of SOCS-1.

A purification procedure is reported for obtaining bovine liver dihydrofolate reductase in high yield and amounts of 100-200 mg. A key step in the procedure is the use of an affinity gel prepared by coupling pteroyl-L-lysine to Sepharose. The purified reductase has a specific activity of about 100 units/mg and is homogeneous as judged by analytical ultracentrifugation, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and titration with methotrexate. The products of the first step of Edman degradation indicated a minimum purity of 79%. The reductase has a molecular weight of about 21500 on the basis of amino acid composition and 22100 +/- 300 from equilibrium sedimentation. It is not inhibited by antiserum to the Streptococcus faecium reductase (isoenzyme 2). Unlike the reductase of many other vertebrate tissues, the bovine enzyme is inhibited by mercurials rather than activated and it has a single pH optimum at both low and high ionic strength. However, the position of the pH optimum is shifted and the activity increased by increasing ionic strength. Automatic Edman degradation has been used to determine 34 of the amino-terminal 37 amino acid residues. Considerable homology exists between this region and the corresponding regions of the reductase from S. faecium and from Escherichia coli. This strengthens the idea that this region contributes to the structure of the binding site for dihydrofolate.

Fresh blood lymphocytes from nine health donors have been compared with samples from the same donors, recovered after period of 2 to 21 months storage in liquid nitrogen, for the capacity to respond to a range of mitogens in vitro. A microculture assay was used, requireing aliquots of only 25,000 cells. The mean levels of 14C-thymidine uptake for fresh and frozen samples were closely comparable when the cells had been stimulated by PHA, Pokeweed or mitomycin-C-treated allogeneic lymphoblastoid cells. Lymphocytes from six East African donors, frozen by a very simple technique, were recovered after 3 or more years storage in liquid nitrogen. Five of the samples were in good condition as judged by cell viability and the capacity to form spontaneous 'E' rosettes with sheep erythrocytes. These five samples also responded extremely well to PHA, PWM and mitomycin-C-treated allogeneic lymphoblastoid cells using the microculture assay. This study extends the range of applications of cell banks in which small aliquots of blood lymphocytes are stored in liquid nitrogen for periods of several years.

PMID: 614126 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

This paper investigates the possibilities of applying emerging management theories and techniques to constitutionally created offices in Kenya and East African region. The benefits from application of these theories, particularly in the judicial services are highlighted.

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This paper looks at responses from participatory on-farm farmer participatory trials that are often measured as ratings (farmers score each given treatment on a scale that is ordered but arbitrary) or rankings (where farmers arrange the treatments in order from most preferred to least preferred). Simple methods such as the preference statistic that uses the proportion of responses, Kruskal-Wallis test which is a one-way analysis of variance by ranks and the Friedman test that is a two-way analysis of variance by ranks are outlined. The Bradley-Terry model for ranks which is a logit model for paired comparisons is described and used to fit models for plot level covariates.

OBJECTIVE: To study the frequency, mode of presentation and outcome following treatment of gliomas in patients treated at the Kenyatta National Hospital. DESIGN: A retrospective study. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, between January 1984 and December 1993. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and fourteen patients with intracranial tumours who underwent brain surgery at the Kenyatta National Hospital. RESULTS: Two hundred and fourteen histologically confirmed intracranial tumours were seen at the Kenyatta National Hospital between 1984 and 1993. Ninety seven (45.8%) of these were gliomas of which eighty one were astrocytomas, ten ependymomas and six oligodendrogliomas. Meningiomas were the next common tumours (34.4%). Gliomas affected the young age group most, with the peak in the first decade of life. Males were most affected with a male to female ratio of 1.4:1. Features of increased intracranial pressure were the commonest mode of clinical presentation. The parietal region was the commonest site of intracranial gliomas (37.5%). Surgery and radiotherapy were the main forms of definitive/palliative treatment given. The two year survival rate was 25%, for patients who had undergone total tumour excision with or without radiotherapy. Tumour debulking only without post-operative radiotherapy was associated with a seven per cent two year survival rate. CONCLUSION: Gliomas were the commonest intracranial tumours (45.8%) seen at the Kenyatta National Hospital over a ten year period (1983-1994). Radical surgery with or without radiotherapy was associated with a 25% two year survival rate, debulking and radiotherapy with 20% two year survival, biopsy and radiotherapy with 20% two year survival and debulking only with a seven per cent two-year survival. Gliomas are less commonly seen in the Kenyan African in comparison with rates of occurrence in the Caucasian race.
East Afr Med J. 2000 Aug;77(8):444-7.

Expression of the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptor trkB in the ganglion cell layer of the Xenopus retina during retinal ganglion cell (RGC) dendritic arborization indicates that BDNF is spatially and temporally available to influence RGC morphological differentiation (; ). BDNF promotes RGC axon arborization in vivo by acting as a target-derived trophic factor (). To determine whether BDNF also acts locally to regulate RGC dendritic development in vivo, we altered retinal neurotrophin levels at the onset of dendritic arborization and assessed the resulting arbor morphologies of RGCs retrogradely labeled with fluorescent dextrans. Injecting neurotrophins or BDNF function-blocking antibodies coupled to microspheres provided local alterations of retinal neurotrophin levels. BDNF significantly decreased RGC dendritic arbor complexity, whereas neutralizing endogenous BDNF levels with function-blocking antibodies significantly increased dendritic arbor complexity. RGCs exposed to other neurotrophins, as well as RGCs in retinae treated with BDNF but in areas not directly exposed to the neurotrophin, developed dendritic arbors that were indistinguishable from controls, indicating that exogenous BDNF acts specifically and locally. In the tectum, where RGC axons arborize, BDNF had opposite effects. BDNF significantly increased RGC axon arbor complexity and anti-BDNF reduced RGC arborization. Thus, BDNF reduces RGC dendritic arborization within the retina and increases axon arborization in the tectum. These results indicate that BDNF can differentially modulate axonal and dendritic arborization within a single neuronal population in opposing manners and raise the possibility that differential modulation by a neurotrophic factor finely tunes the morphological differentiation program of a neuron.

Knowledge of the branching pattern of aortic arch is important during supraaortic angiography, aortic instrumentation, thoracic and neck surgery. Variant patterns are often associated with congenital cardiovascular malformations. The branching pattern shows population variation but there are no data for black Kenyans. The purpose of this study was to describe the pattern in a Kenyan population. One hundred and thirteen aortic arches of adult black Kenyans were exposed during cadaver dissection classes in the Department of Human Anatomy, University of Nairobi and their branches examined. All variations were recorded and photographed. The results are presented in macrographs and a table. Seventy six (67.3%) of the aortic arches showed classical 3 branch pattern of brachiocephalic, left common carotid and left subclavian arteries. Six variants were observed. The most common (25.7%) variation was that of two branches namely a common trunk for the brachiocephalic and left common carotid, and the left subclavian artery; followed by direct arch origin of the vertebral artery in 7 cases (6.2%). In 4 (3.5%) cases the arch had four branches. Over 30% of individuals in the Kenyan population may show variant branching pattern of the aortic arch. This should be taken into account during angiography, aortic instrumentation, supraaortic thoracic, head and neck surgery. Evaluation of cardiovascular malformations in the population is recommended.

Branching pattern of middle cerebral artery influences frequency of its aneurysms, and is of potential value in their surgical repair and diagnosis of stroke. This pattern shows inter-population variations but there is paucity of data from Africans. This study aimed at describing branching pattern among black Kenyans. Middle cerebral arteries numbering 288 from 144 formalin fixed brains obtained during dissection and autopsy at Department of Human Anatomy, University of Nairobi, Kenya were studied. Origin of the middle cerebral artery was identified at base of brain and its stem followed by gently separating the fronto-parietal and temporal lobes. Pattern of early cortical, lenticulostriate, and terminal branching was recorded and macrographs taken. Results were analyzed using SPSS version 13.0 for windows and presented using macrographs. All the brains had bilateral middle cerebral arteries which were continuations of the internal carotid artery. Variations of the artery observed included duplication (1.7%), early bifurcation (5.2%), and early cortical branching (47%), predominantly temporal (63.9%). Lenticulostriate arteries arose predominantly from the pre-bifurcation segment as single branches (64.6%), and as common trunks (35.4%). Modes of termination were bifurcation (82.3%), trifurcation (10.8%), primary trunks (6.2%), and quadrifurcation (0.7%). Cortical branching pattern of the middle cerebral artery resembles that of Caucasian and Indian populations suggesting equal vulnerability to aneurysms and stroke. Pattern of origin of lenticulostriate arteries, predominantly from the pre-bifurcation segment and higher percentage of common trunks implies that the population is more prone to ischemia after aneurysm repair. Extra diligence during operation on proximal middle cerebral artery is called for.

Branching pattern of middle cerebral artery influences frequency of its aneurysms, and is of potential value in their surgical repair and diagnosis of stroke. This pattern shows inter-population variations but there is paucity of data from Africans. This study aimed at describing branching pattern among black Kenyans. Middle cerebral arteries numbering 288 from 144 formalin fixed brains obtained during dissection and autopsy at Department of Human Anatomy, University of Nairobi, Kenya were studied. Origin of the middle cerebral artery was identified at base of brain and its stem followed by gently separating the fronto-parietal and temporal lobes. Pattern of early cortical, lenticulostriate, and terminal branching was recorded and macrographs taken. Results were analyzed using SPSS version 13.0 for windows and presented using macrographs. All the brains had bilateral middle cerebral arteries which were continuations of the internal carotid artery. Variations of the artery observed included duplication (1.7%), early bifurcation (5.2%), and early cortical branching (47%), predominantly temporal (63.9%). Lenticulostriate arteries arose predominantly from the pre-bifurcation segment as single branches (64.6%), and as common trunks (35.4%). Modes of termination were bifurcation (82.3%), trifurcation (10.8%), primary trunks (6.2%), and quadrifurcation (0.7%). Cortical branching pattern of the middle cerebral artery resembles that of Caucasian and Indian populations suggesting equal vulnerability to aneurysms and stroke. Pattern of origin of lenticulostriate arteries, predominantly from the pre-bifurcation segment and higher percentage of common trunks implies that the population is more prone to ischemia after aneurysm repair. Extra diligence during operation on proximal middle cerebral artery is called for.

Branching pattern of the left anterior descending coronary artery is important in explaining variations in
occurrence of coronary atherosclerosis, informing management strategies for coronary heart disease and
interventional cardiology. Data on African populations are, however, scarce. Since coronary heart disease
is increasing in Africa, the aim of this study was to describe branching pattern of the left anterior
descending coronary artery in an indigenous Kenyan population. Two hundred and eight hearts obtained
during autopsy were dissected at the Department of Human Anatomy, University of Nairobi, Kenya. The
entire left anterior descending coronary artery was exposed. Number of branches, pattern of termination
and level of bifurcation were determined. Images of representative patterns were taken using a high
resolution digital camera. Data are presented in macrographs and tables. The number of septal and
diagonal branches varied between 1 and 3. Termination occurred in the posterior interventricular sulcus
in 68.8% and at the apex in 23% cases. Most common mode of terminal branching was bifurcation
(76.9%) followed by trifurcation (11.3%), quadrifurcation (3.4%) and pentafurcation (1.5%). Bifurcation
occurred in the distal segment in 48.8% and in the proximal segment in 15% of cases. The left anterior
descending coronary artery displays high variability in number of septal and diagonal branches, level of
termination, mode of terminal branching and level of terminal bifurcation. These patterns may constitute
risk factors for atherosclerosis and should also be acknowledged during cardiac procedures. Pre –
operative ultrasound evaluation is recommended to minimize inadvertent iatrogenic injury.

Purpose - Brands are so valuable that companies may soon include a ‘statement of value’ addendum to their balance sheets to include intangibles such as the value of their brands.
This paper examines the importance of brands and the bases for purchase decision and loyalty. The bases are derived from a theoretical framework on the perceptual dimensions of brand association. The framework contains attributes, application, benefits, user, personality and country of origin as the associations that consumers use in their purchase decisions and loyalty.
Practical implications- The growing importance of brands and consumer perceptions of brands among marketing researchers requires that an extensive conceptual treatment of brand association be developed. The paper shows the nature of brand association and the future directions in the measurement of perceptual dimension of brand associations.

Key Words: Brand association, consumer perception, formation of brand association

BACKGROUND: There is indirect evidence that HIV-1 exposure does not inevitably lead to persistent infection. Heterogeneity in susceptibility to infection could be due to protective immunity. The objective of this study was to find out whether in highly HIV-1-exposed populations some individuals are resistant to infection. METHODS: We did an observational cohort study of incident HIV-1 infection-among 424 initially HIV-1-seronegative prostitutes in Nairobi, Kenya, between 1985 and 1994. 239 women seroconverted to HIV-1 during the study period. Exponential, Weibull, and mixture survival models were used to examine the effect of the duration of follow-up on incidence of HIV-1 infection. The influence of the duration of exposure to HIV-1 through prostitution on seroconversion risk was examined by Cox proportional hazards modelling, with control for other known or suspected risk factors for incident HIV-1 infection. HIV-1 PCR with env, nef, and vif gene primers was done on 43 persistently seronegative prostitutes who remained seronegative after 3 or more years of follow-up. FINDINGS: Modelling of the time to HIV-1 seroconversion showed that the incidence of HIV-1 seroconversion decreased with increasing duration of exposure, which indicates that there is heterogeneity in HIV-1 susceptibility or acquired immunity to HIV-1. Each weighted year of exposure through prostitution resulted in a 1.2-fold reduction in HIV-1 seroconversion risk (hazard ratio 0.83 [95% CI 0.79-0.88], p < 0.0001). Analyses of epidemiological and laboratory data, show that persistent seronegativity is not explained by seronegative HIV-1 infection or by differences in risk factors for HIV-1 infection such as safer sexual behaviours or the incidence of other sexually transmitted infections. Interpretation: We conclude that a small proportion of highly exposed individuals, who may have natural protective immunity to HIV-1, are resistant to HIV-1. PIP: A cohort study conducted in 1985-94 among 424 prostitutes from Nairobi, Kenya, who were initially human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 seronegative, tended to provide support for the observation that some individuals in highly exposed populations may be resistant to infection. During the 10-year study period, 239 of these women seroconverted. The overall HIV-1 incidence was 42/100 person-years. After the first 2 years of follow up, in which the majority of seroconversions occurred, HIV-1 prevalence reached a plateau and then began a steep decline. To determine whether the risk of HIV-1 infection declined over time as a result of the selection of resistance, incidence rates among women with less than 3 years' versus more than 3 years' duration of prostitution were compared for 1989-93. An increasing protective effect for each seronegative year of exposure was observed. The estimated cumulative protective effect for women practicing prostitution from 1984-93 and remaining seronegative, compared to women who entered prostitution in 1994, was over 100-fold. To rule out the possibility that the decrease in seroconversion with duration of exposure reflected differences in sexual behavior or immunity to sexually transmitted diseases that facilitate HIV transmission, Cox proportional hazards modelling was performed. The weighted duration of prostitution was independently associated with a decreased risk of seroconversion. Each weighted year of exposure resulted in a 1.2-fold decrease in risk. Women who seroconverted were more likely to report 1 or more regular partners and to use condoms with these partners than their counterparts who remained seronegative. Elucidation of the protective mechanisms and the factors mediating the development of immunity against HIV-1 could be important to HIV-1 vaccine research.