Abstract
Human rotaviruses have emerged as a leading cause of acute diarrhea in children <5 years of age worldwide. Although there are previous reports relating to various aspects of rotaviruses, there is limited data on the involvement of rotavirus infection in HIV-infected children. We therefore evaluated the importance of rotavirus infections in HIV-related diarrhea in Kenyan children. Fecal samples were collected from a total of 207 children during the period February 1999 to June 2000 and screened for HRV antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Positive samples were analyzed by VP6 subgroup specificity assay, by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and reverse transcriptase/polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Fourteen percent (29/207) of the samples were positive. HIV-seropositive children with diarrhea were more likely than their counterparts without diarrhea to have rotaviruses [23.3% (10/43) versus 2.9% (2/70); p = 0.0001]. Rotavirus strain G3P[6] was predominant. These results indicate that rotavirus is an important viral etiological agent causing diarrhea in HIV-seropositive children.

J Nat Prod. 2015 Dec 24;78(12):2932-9. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00581. Epub 2015 Dec 14.
Rotenoids, Flavonoids, and Chalcones from the Root Bark of Millettia usaramensis.
Deyou T1, Gumula I1, Pang F2, Gruhonjic A, Mumo M1, Holleran J3, Duffy S3, Fitzpatrick PA, Heydenreich M4, Landberg G, Derese S1, Avery V3, Rissanen K2, Erdélyi M, Yenesew A1.
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Abstract
Five new compounds, 4-O-geranylisoliquiritigenin (1), 12-dihydrousararotenoid B (2), 12-dihydrousararotenoid C (3), 4'-O-geranyl-7-hydroxyflavanone (4), and 4'-O-geranyl-7-hydroxydihydroflavanol (5), along with 12 known natural products (6-17) were isolated from the CH2Cl2/MeOH (1:1) extract of the root bark of Millettia usaramensis ssp. usaramensis by chromatographic separation. The purified metabolites were identified by NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric analyses, whereas their absolute configurations were established on the basis of chiroptical data and in some cases also by X-ray crystallography. The crude extract was moderately active (IC50 = 11.63 μg/mL) against the ER-negative MDB-MB-231 human breast cancer cell line, and accordingly compounds 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 16 also showed moderate to low cytotoxic activities (IC50 25.7-207.2 μM). The new natural product 1 exhibited antiplasmodial activity with IC50 values of 3.7 and 5.3 μM against the chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 and the chloroquine-resistant Dd2 Plasmodium falciparum strains, respectively, and was also cytotoxic to the HEK293 cell line.

From the stem bark of Millettia usaramensis subsp. usaramensis four new 12a-hydroxyrotenoids with the unusual trans B/C ring junction ((+)-12a-epimillettosin, (+)-usararotenoid-A, (+)-12-dihydrousararotenoid-A, and (+)-usararotenoid-B), a new α-hydroxydihydrochalcone (α,4,2′-trihydroxy-4′-O-geranyldihydrochalcone), a new isoflavone, (norisojamicin), and a new cinnamyl alcohol derivative (4-O-geranylcinnamyl acetate) have been isolated and characterized. In addition, the known compounds 4′-O-geranylisoliquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin, barbigerone, jamaicin and maximaisoflavone-G were identified. The structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic evidence and chemical transformations.

To report the expression of estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors and human epidermal growth factor receptor (Her-2/neu) in 158 Kenyan women with breast cancer and correlation with other prognostic indicators in this high-risk group. This study stressed the importance of routine assessment of the steroid receptors and Her-2/neu as a mode of therapeutic selection of patients for antihormonal or targeting monoclonal antibody (Herceptin) therapy, directed at the juxtamembrane domain of Her-2/neu protein in the developing countries such as Kenya. STUDY DESIGN: The study population consisted of 158 female patients with histologically confirmed breast carcinoma seen at the pathology department of The Nairobi Hospital. An immunohistochemical (IHC) study of ER, PR and Her-2/neu was conducted, followed by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) validation for Her-2/neu gene amplification in cases initially scored as positive 2+ with IHC. Mastectomy samples registered at the pathology department of The Nairobi Hospital were used for this study. The study was approved by the institution's ethical review committee and informed consent obtainedfrom the concerned patients. RESULTS: In the studied cohort, positivity for both hormonal receptors and Her-2/neu was noted in 10 (6.33%) cases and negativity in 44 (27.85%) cases. Conversely, Her-2/neu negativity was noted in 32 (20.25%) cases with both steroid receptors positive and Her-2/neu positivity with both steroid receptors negative in 20 (12.66%) cases. Overall, no predictive factor was found in the Her-2/neu amplified 31/153 (20.26%) cases completely assessed with IHC and FISH. Grade III invasive ductal carcinomas, however, had a high prevalence of Her-2/neu overexpression. Association of both menopausal status (p = 0.044) and progesterone receptor status (p = 0.004) with high grade tumors were found to be statistically significant at 95% CI (p < 0.5). Consistent with other studies, Her-2/neu overexpression in this cohort was 20.26%. CONCLUSION: Her-2/neu positivity may activate ER expression through signaling kinases, and the combined target of mitogenic estrogen plus the monoclonal antibody therapy against Her-2/neu-overexpressing tumors expand chances of survival for patients in developing countries such as Kenya. The cost factor for these tests, selection for appropriate combined therapies and lack of awareness were noted as limiting factors for access to basic health care service and resulted in advanced tumor grade at time of patient presentation.

Routine oxygen consumption (Vo2) measurements on 54 specimens (0.055-190.4 g) of a tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Trewavas) were carried out using two different types of closed respirometers: a modified cuvette for fish weighing 0.055-0.91 g and ordinary closed chamber respirometer for fish weighing more than 1 g. Vo2 values over the weight range studied had a scaling value of 0.743 which relates closely to the values for the gill respiratory surface area and morphometric oxygen diffusing capacity of O. niloticus in a previous study /13/. This shows that a close relationship exists between changes in structural parameters involved in oxygen uptake and the routine metabolism of O. niloticus with development. The values for routine Vo2 of 1.38 and 7.65 ml/h for 10 g and 100 g fish, respectively (calculated from the regression equation) show that O. niloticus is a moderately active fish.

HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are believed to play a major role in controlling virus levels through the asymptomatic period of HIV infection. For the rational design of an HIV vaccine, we need to know whether protective immunity can ever develop following HIV exposure in people who remain uninfected. We have detected HIV-specific CTL in 5/6 repeatedly exposed, persistently seronegative female sex-workers in The Gambia. Their CTL, repeatedly detected over two years, recognise epitopes presented by HLA-B35 which are cross-reactive between HIV-1 & HIV-2, suggesting they could have been primed first by HIV-2 exposure and subsequently boosted by exposure to HIV-1. Using previously identified clade B HIV-1 epitope peptides, we have now detected HIV-specific CTL in 6/15 highly exposed and apparently HIV-resistant Kenyan prostitutes, predominantly towards epitopes highly conserved between B and the Kenyan A & D clades of HIV-1. This CTL activity towards conserved virus epitopes may represent protective immunity to HIV generated in response to repeated exposure, and prophylactic HIV vaccines should aim to generate similar CTL responses.

PIP: During the asymptomatic phase of HIV infection, HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are believed to play a major role in controlling virus levels. The design of an HIV vaccine requires knowledge about whether protective immunity can ever develop after exposure to the virus and the mechanisms underlying such natural immunity. The authors' research has focused on HIV-specific CTL responses in highly HIV-exposed commercial sex workers in The Gambia, West Africa, and in Nairobi, Kenya. HIV CTL was detected in 5 of 6 repeatedly exposed, persistently seronegative female sex workers in The Gambia. Their CTL recognized epitopes presented by HLA-835 that are cross-reactive between HIV-1 and HIV-2, suggesting they could have been primed first by HIV-2 exposure and subsequently boosted by exposure to HIV-1. Through use of previously identified clade B HIV-1 epitope peptides, the authors also detected HIV-specific CTL in 6 of 15 highly exposed and apparently resistant Kenyan prostitutes, predominantly toward epitopes highly conserved between B and Kenyan A and D clades of HIV-1. This CTL activity toward conserved virus epitopes may represent protective immunity to HIV in response to HIV generated by repeated exposure. HIV vaccines should aim to generate similar CTL responses. There is currently no evidence that genetic factors, other than weak HLA associations, influence susceptibility or resistance to HIV infection.

This essay looks at Somali oral poetry, using poetry now committed to writing primarily from B. W. Andrzejewski and I. M. Lewis’s Somali Poetry: An Introduction, Basher Goth’s “Abdi Sinimoo and the Balwo Legacy,” Zainab Mohamed Jama’s “Fighting to Be Heard: Somali Women’s Poetry,” and Margaret Laurence’s A Tree for Poverty: Somali Poetry and Prose . Identifying the main genres of the poetry and discussing, with examples of poems, themes the poetry deals with, the essay shows that the beauty of the poetry debunks a stereotype of the Somali as a people bent on conflict, in the process forgetting the intense passion they exhibit in their poetry—whether it is passion for war and peace or whether it is passion for virtue and love.

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The debate on forest degradation in Kenya is mainly concerned with the utilization and exploitation of forest resources. Of particular interest is fuelwood, whose scarcity is a major forest degradation concern. Fuelwood gathered from the forested commons is the most important source of domestic energy in the rural areas of many developing countries. For the case of Kakamega, as shown by this study, there is a declining trend in the availability of fuelwood. Despite this state, rural households still depend largely on it for energy provision in the face of limited options constrained by low capital base. This study sought to examine how these households cope with the existing scarcity of fuelwood. The study employed both primary and secondary sources of data. For primary data, a total of 140 households were selected and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. Response mechanisms were analyzed through descriptive methods by looking at collection attributes, use patterns and fuel saving technologies applied by households. Majority of households in Kakamega have resorted to planting trees on their own farms to ease problems of fuelwood shortage. Findings further reveal that households in their endeavor to circumvent the problem of continued scarcity, have resorted to poorer quality tree/bushes for fuelwood, alongside other innovative methods of responding to the fuelwood scarcity. With improved economic well being, households become less reliant on forests for their livelihoods. Since reduced forest reliance is positively related with reduced demand for forest products, the findings suggest complementarities between strategies aimed at poverty alleviation and those towards forest conservation.

Abstract The improvement of the welfare of inhabitants of arid and semi-arid lands, either through the enhancement of existing livelihoods or the promotion of alternative ones, and their potential constraints are discussed. Alternative livelihoods are discussed under regenerative and extractive themes with respect to environmental stability. Regenerative (i.e., non-extractive) livelihoods include activities like apiculture, poultry keeping, pisciculture, silkworm production, drought tolerant cash cropping, horticulture, community wildlife tourism, processing of livestock and crop products, agro-forestry for tree products, and micro-enterprises in the informal sector. Examples of livelihoods that are extractive or potentially so include timber production, woodcarving, basketry, brick making, sand scooping, and charcoal making. Suggestions to improve these livelihoods in a sustainable manner are offered.

Grupos etnicos; Conservation des sols; Proteccion ambiental; Recursos forestales; Reconstitution forestiere; Structure sociale; Groupe ethnique; Kenia; Tenencia; Kenya; Rural communities; Desarrollo forestal; Environmental protection; Conciencia social; Cambio social; Changement social; Soil conservation; Mode de faire valoir; Ethnic groups; Protection de l' environnement; Comunidades rurales; Conservacion de suelos; Developpement forestier; Reforestacion; Social change; Forestry development; Social consciousness; Communaute rurale; Ressource forestiere; Social structure; Forest resources; Estructura social; Conscience sociale; Tenure; Reforestation

This book is an epic account of life, touching on diverse facets of existence with the Buddhist answers to the riddles of life and those provided by modern science towards the same or similar riddles. In this book, Ikeda catches and conveys to us the impression that living a fulfilling life is attainable, and that the splendour of living such a life has an immutable value that transcends the bounds of the physical death. Fleeting between the past, present and a possible future, the book wrestles with the giant headaches of humankind through a systematic explication of the nature of the cosmos and life, the Buddhist view of life, and the question of life and death. All this is done with the exactitude of a physician carrying out a heart surgery, and with the eloquence of a young man wooing a fair maid. On the whole, the book reduces the recurrent headaches of man to quite curable ailments, no more serious than the common cold or constipation. With respect to the nature of the cosmos and life, the author sinks his teeth into such concepts as the body and the spirit, man and nature, eyes that can see life, the riddle of time and the essence of the cosmos. On the body and the spirit, the author addresses first and foremost, the strange phenomenon of life as it manifests itself in empirical situations

Abstract

Hitherto, land use planning in Kenya was practiced in the colonial urban areas and the scheduled highlands but not in the African markets and rural reserves. This then created favorable land use patterns in the European settlements and unfavorable land use patterns in the African settlements. In the recent times, efforts have been made to introduce land use planning in the former African settlements in order to harmonize land use patterns in the country. However, effective land use planning within the former African settlements especially at the rural-urban interface has proved futile. Hence, the favorable spatial patterns in the former African settlements can still be observed during the era of post-colonial Kenya. This paper seek answers to the following question: why would land use control instruments which are fairly effective in the former European settlements become ineffective in the former African settlements especially at the rural-urban interface? Arising from the review of literature, it is concluded that overtime, the colonial settlements and the African settlements land use economies evolved to what can be considered as two composite land use systems. The two land use systems have variations in land use objectives, legal provisions, institutional frameworks and land delivery models. The variations in components between the former African rural land use systems and those of the colonial urban and scheduled areas system were not harmonized. Therefore, the European settlement area specific land use control instruments could not be effective in the former African land use system where the rural-urban interface is located.

Key words: rural-urban dualism ineffective control instruments, rural-urban interface

A considerable flow of resources takes place at the household level from urban to rural and from non-agrictl~tural to agricultural activities by way of urban-rural remittances, nonfarm income, and return migration~ The potential of this flow of resources in spurring rural economic development has ~~ . been accordel~~-ittle significance in development theory and planning. This dissertation uses data from Kutus area, Kenya to show how rural-urban exchange relations drive rural development. First, it investigates the relationship between farm income, xi the propensity to earn income from sources other than the farm, and agricultural production and productivity. Next, it examines where rural households earn their incomes, where they spend and invest it, and the consequences for economic development in the Kutus area. The analysis demonstrates that the use of nonfarm income enables rural households in Kutus area to raise agricultural output, productivity, and farm income. The study also reveals that rural household economic behavior is highly oriented towards spending and re-investing in the local area spurring the grewth of nonfarm acti vi ties in Kutus town and lower market centers. Growth of smallholder production and rural economy has been the main engine of Kenya's sustained economic growth. There is still considerable scope for further development of agriculture. The study emphasizes establishment of rural development policies that encompass both agriculture and non farm activities, rural as well as urban areas, and the need to re-orient institutional infrastructure for rural ,. development to make it more responsive to smallholder production.

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Department of Dentistry, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Tumaini University, P.O. Box 3010, Moshi, Tanzania. OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of malocclusion in 12-15 -year-olds in Moshi, Tanzania. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Moshi Municipality, Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and eighty nine randomly selected primary school children (153 males and 136 females) had a clinical examination for malocclusion traits done. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of malocclusion was 97.6%. Angle's Class II and III malocclusion occurred in 6.9% and 11% of the sample respectively. Crowding was encountered very frequently in both jaws, especially in the lower anterior segments. Anterior open bite occurred in 6.2% and the deep bite in 10.7% of the sample. There was no significant gender difference in either the overall prevalence of malocclusion or in the occurrence of the different occlusal traits. CONCLUSION: It was noteworthy that some of the malocclusion traits recorded were relatively minor deviations from the normal occlusion. Hence the high prevalence of malocclusion did not necessarily imply a heavy burden of need and demand for orthodontic treatment.