n/a

n/a

n/a

The world is today faced with the global pandemic of HIV/AIDS that has evolved rapidly since it was first described. The pandemic has been termed the greatest development challenge for sub Saharan Africa and is rapidly evolving in the Asian continent. The pandemic ha had a significantly negative impact on individual families through loss of loved ones, communities by increasing the burden of caring for the ill, and countries through reduced productivity.     As we look forward to the 21st century, the human population is reminded that even in an age where drugs to treat most ailments are available, human behaviour and individual aspirations are critical in the control of disease. Factors that affect human and social behaviour, such as poverty, discrimination and disenfranchisement have to be addressed on a global basis if the HIV/AIDS epidemic is to be controlled. The HIV/AIDS epidemic presents special challenges and new frontiers for public health interventions and research. HIV/AIDS has revealed the gaps in the understanding of how human behaviour is motivated and how it can be changed.     In this publication we present a review of some of the programs that are specifically targeting the youth with HIV/AIDS prevention activities in the countries of   This publication records the stories of men and women in Eastern Africa, who have tremendous commitment to the work they do even with minimal resources, because they have a vision for the youth of the African continent. It is a story of innovation, creativity, determination and partnership between adults and youth, communities and governments, countries, aid agencies and NGOSs.

Samples of water, sediments and aquatic weeds were collected from 26 sites in the Nyando River catchment of the Lake Victoria basin in 2005–2006. The objective was to investigate levels of organochlorine pesticides that have either been banned or are restricted for use in Kenya. The pesticides investigated were lindane, aldrin, endosulfan, endrin, dieldrin, DDT, heptachlor and methoxychlor. These pesticides had previously found wide applications in public health and agriculture in Kenya for control of disease vectors and crop pests respectively. Results showed that mean concentrations were highest for methoxychlor (8.817 ± 0.020 µg l−1) in water, sediments (92.893 ± 3.039 µg kg−1), and weeds (39.641 ± 3.045 µg kg−1), the weeds also tended to accumulate aldrin (15.519 ± 3.756 µg kg−1). The results show that the pesticides are still in use and are detected in the catchment. Stringent management and public awareness measures are required to enforce the ban on the organochlorine pesticides in order to safeguard the environment and ecosystems of Lake Victoria.

Description
Samples of water, sediments and aquatic weeds were collected from 26 sites in the Nyando River catchment of the Lake Victoria basin in 2005–2006. The objective was to investigate levels of organochlorine pesticides that have either been banned or are restricted for use in Kenya. The pesticides investigated were lindane, aldrin, endosulfan, endrin, dieldrin, DDT, heptachlor and methoxychlor. These pesticides had previously found wide applications in public health and agriculture in Kenya for control of disease vectors and crop pests respectively. Results showed that mean concentrations were highest for methoxychlor (8.817 ± 0.020 µg l−1) in water, sediments (92.893 ± 3.039 µg kg−1), and weeds (39.641 ± 3.045 µg kg−1), the weeds also tended to accumulate aldrin (15.519 ± 3.756 µg kg−1). The results show that the pesticides are still in use and are detected in the catchment. Stringent management and …

Description
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers are linked to adverse health effects that includethyroid hormone disruption, neuro-developmental deficit, abnormal pregnancy, and potential carcinogens. This study was aimed at assessing the concentrationsof selected Polybrominated diphenyl ether compounds in water of Nairobi River. Water samples were collected by grab method from nine sites along the river andanalysed for brominated diphenyl ethers using gas chromatography coupled withmass spectrometer. The mean concentration of polybrominated diphenyl ethersresidue in water ranged from< 0.0009 to 72.89±6.15 ng/L. The dominantcongeners were 2, 2′, 4, 4′-tetra-bromodiphenyl ether, 2, 2′, 4, 4′, 5, 5′-hexabromodiphenylether, 2, 2′, 4, 4′, 6-penta-bromodiphenyl ether, 2, 2′, 4, 4′, 5, 5′-hexabromodiphenylether and 2, 2′, 4, 4′, 5, 6′-hexa-bromodiphenyl. The highest meanconcentration of 2, 2′, 4, 4′-tetra-bromodiphenyl ether was 72.89±6.15 ng/L, 2, 2′, 3, 4, 4′-penta-bromodiphenyl ether was 14.08±0.68 ng/L, 2, 2′, 4, 4′, 6-pentabromodiphenylether was 43.67±1.47 ng/L, 2, 2′, 4, 4′, 5, 5′-hexa-bromodiphenylether was 24.78±2.49 ng/L, and 2, 2′, 3, 4, 4′, 5′, 6-hepta-bromodiphenyl ether was11. 75±0.97 ng/L. Consequently, as these compounds are known to bioaccumulatein fatty tissues, continued use of the river water poses a health risk toanimals and humans due to contamination across the food chain.

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

A retrospective study of the hospital records revealed that 39 cases of mandibular fractures presented at Kisii District Hospital during a two-year period. 27 cases were due to interpersonal violence while road traffic accidents and accidental falls accounted for 9 and 3 of the cases respectively. The male ratio was 2.9:1. Majority (26 cases) of the patients were aged between 20 and 39 years. The commonly involved fracture site was the left body of the mandible accounting for 20 of the fractures.

A survey to determine the prevalence, incidence and severity of angular leaf spot of common bean was conducted in Embu, Kakamega, Kiambu, Machakos and Taita Taveta districts of Kenya. The districts were selected based on the intensity of bean production, spatial and ecological location. Angular leaf spot was prevalent in all the districts and was recorded in 89% of the farms visited. The disease was present in all the farms surveyed in Embu, Kakamega and Machakos districts. In Taita Taveta and Kiambu districts, disease prevalence was 80 and 65%, respectively. The disease was prevalent across the lower midland, lower highland and upper midland agroecological zones and altitude ranges of 963-2322 m above sea level (m.a.s.l.). Disease incidence and severity were high (mean values of 49.6 and 21.4%, respectively) and varied significantly (p≤0.05) among districts, farms, agroecological zones and different altitudes. Kakamega and Taita Taveta districts recorded the highest disease incidence and severity, respectively, whereas Embu district had the lowest incidence and severity. Bean fields in the altitude ranges of below 1200 m and 1600-2000 m.a.s.l. had the highest disease severity (33.8%) and incidence (52.9%), respectively, whereas areas above 2000 m recorded lower disease levels. Agroecological zone LM2 and UM4 had the highest levels of disease incidence and severity whereas zones LH1 and UM3 had the lowest levels, respectively. These results indicate that angular leaf spot is severe and highly prevalent in Kenya. The disease spans across all the agroecological zones and altitude ranges where beans are grown. Efforts should, therefore, be geared towards an integrated approach to manage the disease.

n/a

The impact of microbiological commercial products (PHC Biopak, Rhizatech and ECO-T) on
the occurrence of mycorrhizae and Fusarium in the rhizosphere of tissue culture banana
(Gros Mitchel cv.) was assessed. Tissue cultured banana plantlets were inoculated with PHC
Biopak (Bacillus), Rhizatech (mycorrhiza) and ECO-T (T. harzianum) under greenhouse conditions
using a completely randomized design in a Vertisol, Rhodic Ferralsol and Humic Nitisol sampled
from the major banana growing regions in Kenya. Potted plants were later established under field
conditions in the three agro ecological zones. Roots and soils sampled at end of potting and at
flowering were assessed for AM fungi colonization and Fusarium populations. The effect of product
inoculation on AM fungi colonization varied and only significant (p<0.05) in Rhodic Ferralsol with
Rhizatech increasing intensity of colonization by 31.9% and PHC Biopak increasing the frequency
of colonization by 38.6% compared to the non-inoculated control (12.9%). F. oxysporum, fsp. cubense,
F. proliferatum and F. incarnatum were recovered from the experimental soils. Foc was the most
abundant in the three soils (prior to inoculation) accounting for 60.6% of all Fusarium colony
forming units. After inoculation, at the end of potting stage and at flowering, F. proliferatum was
mostly isolated from the three zones accounting for 35.2% of the total fungal population. Foc was
isolated from Humic Nitisol and Vertisol accounting for 11.5% of the total fungal population. PHC
Biopak, ECO-T and Rhizatech suppressed Foc colony forming units per gram of soil by 47, 68 and
55%, respectively in the Humic Nitisol. ECO-T reduced Fusarium colony forming units per gram
of soil by 6% in Rhodic Ferralsol and PHC Biopak by 50% in Vertisol compared to the
non-inoculated soils. There is potential in use of commercial microbiological products to suppress
Foc and the efficacy of the products depends on soil physico-chemical properties.
Key words: Tissue culture banana, Trichoderma

Abstract:
The population and diversity of fungal species and levels of aflatoxin contamination were investigated in 228 marketed peanut samples; 140 from formal and 88 from informal markets, in Kericho and Eldoret towns of Kenya. Ground peanut samples were cultured on Modified Dichloran Rose Bengal (MDRB) agar while aflatoxin level was quantified based on indirect competitive ELISA. Correlation between the incidence of major aflatoxin-producing fungal species and aflatoxin levels was also established. Fungal species commonly isolated from the peanut samples included Aspergillus flavus L strain, A. flavus S strain, A. parasiticus, A. tamarii, A. caelatus, A. alliaceus (all of Aspergillus section Flavi) and A. niger. Fungi isolated in low frequency included Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp., Mucor spp. and Rhizopus spp. Aflatoxin levels in peanut products ranged from 0 to 2345 μg/kg in raw peanuts, 0 to 382 μg/kg in roasted coated peanuts, and 0 to 201 μg/kg in roasted de-coated peanuts. Overall, levels of total aflatoxin were higher in samples from informal (mean = 97.1 μg/kg) than formal (mean = 55.5 μg/kg) market outlets. There was a positive and significant correlation (R2 = 0.63; p ≤ 0.05) between aflatoxin levels and the major aflatoxin producing fungi in raw peanuts from formal markets in Eldoret town. Additionally, total aflatoxin in raw peanut samples from informal markets in Kericho was positively and significantly correlated (R2 = 0.81; p ≤ 0.05) to the population of A. flavus (L and S strains). In roasted coated peanuts sampled from formal market outlets in Eldoret, aflatoxin levels correlated positively and significantly (R2 = 0.37; p ≤ 0.05) with A. flavus S strain. There is need to create awareness among peanut traders and consumers on proper handling of peanuts and health risks associated with consumption of unsafe peanut products.

Kituyi, E. and Kirubi, C. ()

Kenya's fast growing human population is expected to reach 35 million by the year 2000. In order to cope with such a rapid rate of growth, efforts must be directed towards adequate agricultural and livestock production to counter the disproportionate increase in demand for food. To provide sufficient animal protein (milk and beef products) attempts must be made to eliminate the current constraints hindering livestock production and expansion in Kenya (KARI,1989). One such constraint (in terms of both health effects and economic losses) is the presence of several important infectious diseases affecting cattle, characterized by the occurrence of parasites in the animal's blood (haemoparasites) (Mutugi et al, 1989).
There are two major groups of haemoparasitic diseases that occur in Kenya: tick-transmitted, and tsetse and non-tsetse transmitted (trypanosomiasis) diseases. Tick-borne diseases are considered to be the most important animal health problem in the high potential areas, while trypanosomiasis is a major threat in the low potential range lands (Mutugi, 1986). These diseases restrict introduction of higher producing but susceptible stock in certain areas of the country; inflict high mortalities in susceptible stock; lead to productivity losses in recovered animals; and necessitate exclusion of highly productive breeds of livestock from locations where there is an outbreak (FAO, 1984).
Tick-borne diseases frequently encountered in Kenya are theileriosis, anaplasmosis, cowdriosis and babesiosis. Theileriosis comprises a group of protozoan parasites of the genus Theileria, which are transmitted by the ixodid ticks. Four different species of this genus are recorded in cattle; clinical theileriosis is associated with one species, Theileria parva transmitted by the brown ear tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. This species causes the notorious East Coast Fever (ECF), a highly fatal disease of cattle. A closely related form, corridor disease (T.parva Tawrencei infection) transmitted by the same tick is a buffalo derived parasite that causes very high mortalities in infected cattle (Mutugi et al, 1989). In Western Kenya, both ECF and anaplasmosis are common practical animal health problems that are seriously affecting the livestock industry. Outbreaks of these diseases are frequent and have continued to pose great challenges in terms of control for over 80 years.

Currently, the most conventional method of controlling ECF and anaplasmosis in cattle involves the use of acaricides. In Western Kenya, many types of acaricides are available but presently, the most commonly used chemical is chlorfenvinphos (ILRAD, 1991). It is frequently applied on cattle either through plunge dips or sprays. Little, however, is known about the fate of this compound and its residual effect in milk and beef. A recent survey in Kenya (KEMRI,1988) suggests that chronic or acute exposure to chlorfenvinphos can result in serious health effects in humans. Residue levels exceeding 8jug/kg of butterfat in cow's milk are currently regarded as dangerous for human consumption (Codex Alimentarius,1993), although concentrations as high as 20/ig/kg have been reported in Australia (Shell, 1969).
The purpose of this project was to establish the levels of chlorfenvinphos typically occurring in Kenyan cow's milk; and to determine the influence of season (climate changes) variation in butterfat content, and method of acaricide application (plunge dip or spray) on the residue content in milk sampled at a range of sites in Western Kenya.

Correspondence to: I. O. Jumba

One hundred and thirty-three loose or diarrhoeic stool specimens from patients admitted at Kenyatta National Hospital were examined for cryptosporidiosis. Oocysts were detected in 5(3.8%) of the total in which Cryptosporidium was the sole pathogenic agent. In addition to Cryptosporidium, other pathogens isolated included bacteria, protozoa and helminths. We therefore report that Cryptosporidium is a cause of diarrhoea and should be looked for in the absence of other pathogenic organisms.

Background: Crystal arthropathies represent a heterogeneous group of skeletal (musculo-skeletal) diseases associated with the deposition of mineralized material within joints and periarticular soft tissues. Gout is the most common and pathogenetically best understood crystal arthropathy, followed by basic calcium phosphate and calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate deposition diseases, and, in very rare cases, calcium oxalate crystal arthropathy. In Kenya there are no studies to demonstrate the prevalence of these diseases. This study endeavored to describe the different types of crystals seen in patients with synovitis in Nairobi from 1st January 2012 to 31st January 2014.
Objective: To describe different types of crystals seen in patients with synovitis in Nairobi.
Design: Descriptive prospective cross sectional study.
Results: There were 260 samples received from patients with synovitis. Of them, 61 (23.5%) were from males while 199 (76.5%) were from females. The age range of the patients was from 14 – 110 years. The mean, median and mode were 59.6, 60 and 55 years respectively. Majority of the patients were in the 51-60 years age category. Most of the patients recruited had no crystals (n=211; 81.2%)
diagnosed, with 14.2%(n=37) having uric acid crystals and 4.6 % (n=12) having CPPD crystals. For the patients who had uric acid crystals (n=37), when gender was cross tabulated against microscopy, males (n=32; 86.5%) were noted to have more uric acid crystals than females (n=5;
13.5%). Among patients diagnosed with CPPD (n=12), there were more females (n=9; 75%) patients compared to males (n=3; 25%). From the total population recruited (n=260), when age range categories were cross tabulated against microscopy, the age ranges 41-50 (n=9; 3.5%) 51-60 (n=12; 4.6%), and 61-70 (n=6; 2.3%) were noted to have more uric acid crystals than any other age category recruited. Patients in the age category 61-70 (n=6; 50 %) had more CPPD crystal detections than any other age category from the patients recruited.
Conclusion: Crystal arthropathy is a major cause of synovitis in patients seen in Nairobi.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease of small grain cereals. This study
assessed the incidence and severity of FHB of wheat at hard dough stage, and levels of
deoxynivalenol and T2-toxin at harvest by direct competitive enzyme linked immuno-sorbent
assay. Wheat ears were randomly sampled from 51 farms in Narok County and 51 farms in
Nakuru County at hard dough stage while wheat kernels were sampled at harvest.
Prevalence of FHB in both Counties was 100%. The mean incidence of FHB was 28.4 …

Fusarium head blight is a devastating disease of wheat and other small-grain cereals, causing grain yield reduction, reduced quality and mycotoxin contamination. This study was conducted in two districts of Kenya to determine the incidence of Fusarium species and mycotoxin contamination in freshly harvested wheat. A survey was carried out during the 2004 growing season in different agro-climatic zones to determine the presence of Fusarium head blight and weather conditions during the critical stages of wheat growth. Fungal contamination was determined by isolation on agar media while mycotoxin analysis was by direct competitive ELISA. Fusarium head blight was reported by 81% of the farmers and wet conditions were prevalent during anthesis. The wheat grain samples were highly contaminated with fungi, especially Epicoccum, Alternaria and Fusarium species. The mean Fusarium infection rate varied from 13 to 18%, with the major head blight – causing species being F. poae, F. graminearum, F. equiseti, and F. avenaceum. Fusarium poae, F. chlamydosporum and F. oxysporum were the most prevalent in all the agro-ecological zones while F. graminearum was isolated in 6 out of the 9 agro-ecological zones. Most grain samples were contaminated with mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, zearalenone and aflatoxin B1. The most prevalent mycotoxin was T-2 (86% of the samples) followed by deoxynivalenol (59%), zearalenone (53%), and aflatoxin B1 (52%). The maximum mycotoxin concentration was 302mg/kg, 95.8mg/kg, 65.7mg/kg and 6.9mg/kg for deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 toxin and aflatoxin B1, respectively. The incidence and levels of the mycotoxins varied depending on the agro-ecological zone. Samples with high proportion of total Fusarium infection contained higher deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin levels. Co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin and zearalenone was fund in up to 35% of the samples. The results suggested the presence of Fusarium head blight in Kenya and associated mycotoxin contamination, though at low but significant levels. The presence of the different mycotoxins, though at low levels, could pose chronic adverse health effects to human and livestock fed on the contaminated wheat products.

Malaria is a serious cause of mortality globally. The disease is of regional concern in Africa and of national interest in Kenya due to its high morbidity and mortality as a result of development of resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum to many existing drugs such as chloroquine. Alternative medicine using herbal remedies are commonly used to treat malaria in Kenya. However, plants used in some rural areas in Kenya are not documented. Many antimalarial drugs have been derived from plants. This study was conducted to document medicinal plants that are traditionally used by the Msambweni community of Kenyan South Coast to treat malaria, where the disease is endemic. Herbalists were interviewed by administration of semistructured questionnaires in order to obtain information on medicinal plants traditionally used for the treatment of malaria. Focused group discussions held with the herbalists supplemented the interview and questionnaire survey. Twenty-seven species of plants in 24 genera distributed in 20 families were reported to be used in this region for the treatment of malaria. Labiatae, Rutaceae and Liliaceae families had each eleven percent of the plant species reported and represented th species that are most commonly used. Thirteen plant species, namely; Aloe deserti Berger (Liliaceae), Launea cornuta (Oliv and Hiern) C. Jeffrey (Compositae), Ocimum bacilicum L. (Labiatae), Teclea simplicifolia (Eng) Verdoon (Rutaceae), Gerranthus lobatus(Cogn.) Jeffrey (Cucurbitaceae), Grewia hexaminta Burret.(Tiliaceae), Canthium glaucum Hiern. (Rubiaceae), Amaranthus hybridus L.(Amaranthaceae), Combretum padoides Engl and Diels. (Combretaceae), Seneciosyringitolius O.Hoffman. (Compositae), OcimumsuaveWilld(Labiatae), Aloe macrosiphon Bak. (Liliaceae) and Laudolphia buchananii (Hall.f) Stapf. (Apocynaceae) are documented from this region forthefirst time for the treatment of malaria. These results become a basis for selection of plants for further pharmacological, toxicological and phytochemical studies in developing new plant based antimalarial drugs.

presence of head blight-causing Fusarium species. Fungal contaminationwas determined by isolation on agar media, while mycotoxin analysis was by direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The wheat grain samples were highly contaminated with fungi, especially Epicoccum, Alternaria and Fusarium species. The mean Fusarium infection rate varied from 13% to 18%, with the major head blight-causing species being Fusarium poae, Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium equiseti and Fusarium avenaceum. F. graminearum isolates were found to be highly virulent (79% disease severity) and significantly reduced kernel weight. Most grain samples were contaminated with mycotoxins, with a mean incidence rate of up to 75% for deoxynivalenol (DON) and 86% for T-2 toxin. Other mycotoxins detected were zearalenone and aflatoxin B1. Co-occurrence of DON, T-2 toxin and zearalenone was found in up to 35% of the samples. The results suggested the presence of Fusarium head blight and associated mycotoxins in Kenya. The presence of several mycotoxins, even at such low levels, could pose chronic adverse health effects to human and livestock fed on the contaminated wheat products.

Normal 0 false false false MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 st1:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} Macrophytes have been shown to perform important ecological roles in Lake Naivasha. Consequently, various studies regarding the impact of biotic factors on the macrophytes have been advanced but related studies on environmental parameters have lagged behind. In an attempt to address this gap, sampling on floating species and submergents was carried out in eight sampling sites in 2003 to investigate how they were influenced by a set of environmental factors. Soil texture (sandy sediments; P < 0.05, regression coefficient = - 0.749) and wind were the most important environmental parameters influencing the distribution and abundance of floating macrophytes. Combination of soil texture and lake-bed slope explained the most (86.3%) variation encountered in the submergents. Continuous translocation of the floating dominant water hyacinth to the western parts by wind has led to displacement of the submergents from those areas. In view of these findings, the maintenance and preservation of the steep Crescent Lake basin whose substratum is dominated by sand thus hosting most submergents remain important, if the whole functional purpose of the macrophytes is to be sustained.

A water-soluble hepatotoxin has been isolated
f r om the seeds of Encephalartos hildebrandtii (Zamiaceae)
and identified as macrozamin, methylazoxymethanol-;8-
primeveroside (CH3N=NCH20CiiHi909). a-Amino-)3-methyli
O
aminopropionic acid ( C H j — N H — C H 2 —CHCNHO—COOH),
reported to be present i n the seeds of Cycas circinalis (Gycadaceae),
was not detected i n either the seeds of Encephalartos hildebrandtii or
the leaves of Cycoj thuarsii.

Wheat samples collected from 5 wheat growing districts of Kenya were investigated for contamination by different fungi. Kernels were plated on agar media and the fungi that grew were identified by cultural and morphological characteristics to genus level. Fusarium isolates were identified to species level and isolates of F. graminearum were tested for mycotoxin production in culture. The major genera of fungi isolated according to decreasing frequency were Epicoccum (52.8%), Alternaria (34%), Fusarium (6%), Aspergillus (2.3%) and Penicillium (1.8%). The frequently isolated Epicoccum species was identified as E. purpurascenes. Cladosporium and Rhizopus spp. were also isolated at very low frequencies. The most frequently isolated Fusarium species were F. poae (43%), F. graminearum (39%), and F. avenaceum (8%). Other Fusarium species isolated were F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. camptoceras and F. chlamydosporium. Most isolates of F. graminearum produced mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. The isolated Fusarium species are known to cause head blight in wheat resulting in mycotoxin contamination of the grains. The results therefore indicated that head blight is widely distributed at low levels in the wheat growing areas investigated. This inoculum is potentially capable of producing severe infections under optimum weather conditions.

Wheat samples collected from 5 wheat growing districts of Kenya were investigated for contamination by different fungi. Kernels were plated on agar media and the fungi that grew were identified by cultural and morphological characteristics to genus level. Fusarium isolates were identified to species level and isolates of F. graminearum were tested for mycotoxin production in culture. The major genera of fungi isolated according to decreasing frequency were Epicoccum (52.8%), Alternaria (34%), Fusarium (6%), Aspergillus (2.3%) and Penicillium (1.8%). The frequently isolated Epicoccum species was identified as E. purpurascenes. Cladosporium and Rhizopus spp. were also isolated at very low frequencies. The most frequently isolated Fusarium species were F. poae (43%), F. graminearum (39%), and F. avenaceum (8%). Other Fusarium species isolated were F. equiseti, F. oxysporum, F. camptoceras and F. chlamydosporium. Most isolates of F. graminearum produced mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. The isolated Fusarium species are known to cause head blight in wheat resulting in mycotoxin contamination of the grains. The results therefore indicated that head blight is widely distributed at low levels in the wheat growing areas investigated. This inoculum is potentially capable of producing severe infections under optimum weather conditions.

Objective: To determine the occurrence of risk factors amongst farmers keeping livestock in Kisumu municipality, Kenya. Methods: Thirty four contact house-holds involved in livestock keeping constituted the study group. The head of the household was interviewed using a structured questionnaire relating to public health issues affecting water, food and sanitation Results: The water consumed at the household level originated from the taps (56%), bore holes (18%), local rivers (15%) and wells (15%). The wells were shallow and open to contamination. Fourty one percent (41%) of the households consumed water without boiling or any other form of treatment. Farmers had a history of slaughtering cattle (79%) and pigs (66%) at their homes and these animals were not inspected by legalized government officers. During the last five years, porcine cysticercosis and taeniosis (9%) were reported to occur amongst the homesteads. Although toilets were found in most homes, some were overflowing (27%), while children below 4 years (mean) of age defaecated in the bushes/grass within the neighbourhood. Most farmers (62%) disposed the manure next to the animal boma resulting in creation of small manure ‗hills‘ that were a nuisance and breeding ground for vector flies. Other risk factors for disease transmission included consumption of unwashed raw food (48%), dried raw fish (21%) and failure to wash cows‘ udder before milking (29%). Conclusion: The study shows that risk factors for transmission of zoonoses are common in house holds keeping livestock in the study area and highlights the need for public health education to raise awareness of these factors. Further studies should be conducted to determine the possibilities of zoonoses occurrences among the human population.

Two surveys were carried out in October 2001 (season 1) and April 2002 (season 2) in five divisions of Embu district during the short and long rains, respectively. Ten farms were randomly selected per division and fifteen bean plants were sampled from every farm and used to determine the occurrence and incidence of bean root rot and bean stem maggot. Each bean root was examined for the presence of bean stem maggot and root rot pathogen. The incidences of bean root rot diseases and bean stem maggot were significantly (p = 0.05) higher during the short rain than during the long rains. Wetter agro-ecological zones such as LH2 and UM1 had more incidence of root rot than UM2, UM3 and UM4. During both seasons Fusarium solani, Rhizoctonia solani and Macrophomina phaseolina were the major root rot pathogens isolated. The species of bean stem maggot found in Embu district were Ophyiomia spencerella and O. phaseoli, with the latter being the dominant species. Agro-ecological zones had no significant effect on the incidence of bean stem maggot. Root rot disease was frequently associated with bean stem maggot. Pearson correlation (r) between bean root rot disease and bean stem maggot was 0.495. The result is important in the management of bean root rot and bean stem maggot.

n/a

Description
A baseline study was conducted of the occurrence of macroinvertebrates at 26 sites in the Nyando River catchment in 2005–2006. A total of 13 orders and 16 families of Arthropoda, Mollusca, Platyhelminthes and Annelida were collected, with the order Ephemeroptera being most abundant in the up- and mid-stream reaches, followed by Hemiptera and Plecoptera respectively. The downstream sections of the river were dominated by Hirudinea and tubificids, as the water quality deteriorated mainly due to local land use, raw sewage effluent discharge and annual floods. Insects and annelids were the main invertebrates found and the extent of pollution increased from mid-section (Site 15) downwards as the river flowed into the Winam Gulf. Stringent management measures are required to safeguard the environment and ecosystems of Lake Victoria.

The study was to investigate the impacts on the ecosystem health in relation to levels and distribution of organochlorine pesticides that have either been banned or restricted for use in Kenya. The pesticides targeted were DDT, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, endrin, endosuphan, and methoxychlor. Prior to their ban or restriction in use, they had found wide applications in public health and agriculture for control of disease vectors and crop pests respectively.

A study was conducted in which 880 samples of soil, water, sediments, aquatic weeds and benthic macroinvertebrates were collected from 26 locations representative of the River Nyando drainage basin catchment area of 3450 km2 and a total length of 170 km of the Lake Victoria Catchment over a period of two years. Soils from six farms were sampled in areas where maize, tea, sugar cane, col fee, rice and vegetables have been grown over the years. The objective was to investigate the impacts on the ecosystem health in relation to levels and distribution of oraganochlorine pesticides that have either been banned or are restricted for use in Kenya. The pesticides targeted were DDT, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, endrin, endosulfan and methoxychlor. Pior to their ban or restriction in use, they had found wide applications in public health and agriculture for control of disease vectors and crop pests respectively. Analysis of 48 soil samples revealed presence of all the targeted pesticides. Mean concentrations (pg/kg) recorded decreased in the order methoxychlor (138.97±1.517 pg/kg), total (X) endosulfan (30.267±2.098pg/kg), £DDT (17.513± 1.689 pg/kg), dieldrin (14.073±0.440 pg/kg), endrin (10.155±0.860 pg/kg), lindane (8.985±1.318 pg/kg) and ^Heptachlor (0.681±0.021 pg/kg), respectively. The distribution showed that dieldrin was in use in vegetable farms in Kedowa area, tea farms in Nandi District and in Ahero rice paddies; while p-endosulfan was commonly used on tea farms in Nandi. Water analysis from the 26 sampling sites showed the highest mean concentrations were detected for methoxychlor (8.817±0.020 pg/L), ^endosulfan (1.648± 0.04 pg/L), dieldrin (1.1561± 0.042 pg/L), endrin (0.281± 0.003 pg/L), £DDT (0.242±0.009 pg/L), £heptachlor (0.148±0.01 lpg/L) and lindane (0.144±0.006pg/L) respectively. The detected levels in sediments were considerably higher than those found in water in the order, methoxychlor (92.893±3.039 pg/kg ), lindane (33.917±2.360 pg/kg), aldrin (26.676±0.981 pg/kg ), dieldrin (23.62±4.810 pg/kg) and P-endosulfan, (10.502±0.800 pg/kg), respectively. The analysis of aquatic weeds recorded methoxychlor (39.641±3.045 pg/kg) as the highest residue concentrations, followed by aldrin (15.519±3.756 pg/kg). These higher levels may be as a result of continued use of the pesticide in the drainage basin. The levels of pesticides were higher in sediment, weeds and soil than in water. The pooled results show that the targeted pesticides are still in use in the basin and could be impacting negatively on the ecosystem health of the area. A study of the composition of the benthic macroinvertebrates showed presence of four invertebrate phyla in River Nyando. These were Arthropoda, Mollusca, Plathelminthes and Annelida. A diversity of 16 families and eleven orders was recorded, with the order Ephemeroptera being abundant upstream followed by Hemiptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera respectively. The downstream sections mainly the rice farming areas were dominated by Hirudinae (leaches) and Oligochaeta, suggesting that they are less sensitive to environmental pollution. Using Multivariate analytical techniques, Redundancy Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis, correlation statistics showed that the occurrence of organochlorine pesticides strongly affects the distribution of the benthic macro invertebrates at all the sampling locations within the drainage basin. The high concentrations of pesticide residues were detected mostly in the soils and water from rice farms, these magnitudes were followed by those from tea farms. This implies that the rice farmers use most pesticides followed by tea farmers and there the proximity of the rice paddies to Lake Victoria could pose a greater impact to ecosystem health in the entire catchment than the upstream tea, sugar cane, maize and coffee farms owing to pesticide discharge; and this call for stringent management measures to be put in place to safeguard the environment.

n/a

Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the treatments and their outcomes in horses with colic in Nairobi County, Kenya.
Materials and Methods: This is a retrospective study to determine the occurrence, treatments, pain management, and outcomes of colic in horses in Nairobi County. Association between pain management protocols and the outcomes of colic with regard to recovery or death was also determined. Data collected from four equine practitioners were organized manually and given numerical codes as appropriate to facilitate entry into the computer. The coded data were entered into Microsoft Excel 2010 and exported to StatPlus pro 5.9. 8 statistical package for analysis. Simple association tests were done between various factors and occurrence of colic.
Results: The incidence of colic for the 11 years was 3.1%, which constituted 68.0% spasmodic colic, 27.8% impaction colic, and 4.2% displacement …

Despite earlier studies over various parts of the world including equatorial Eastern Africa (EEA) showing that intraseasonal statistics of wet and dry spells have spatially coherent signals and thus greater predictability potential, no attempts have been made to identify the predictors for these intraseasonal statistics. This study therefore attempts to identify the predictors (with a 1‐month lead time) for some of the subregional intraseasonal statistics of wet and dry spells (SRISS) which showed the greatest predictability potential during the short rainfall season over EEA. Correlation analysis between the SRISS and seasonal rainfall totals on one hand and the predefined predictors on the other hand were initially computed and those that were significant at 95% confidence levels retained. To identify additional potential predictors, partial correlation analyses were undertaken between SRISS and large‐scale oceanic and atmospheric fields while controlling the effects of the predefined predictors retained earlier. Cross‐validated multivariate linear regression (MLR) models were finally developed and their residuals assessed for independence and for normal distribution. Four large‐scale oceanic and atmospheric predictors with robust physical/dynamical linkages with SRISS were identified for the first time. The cross‐validated MLR models for the SRISS of wet spells and seasonal rainfall totals mainly picked two of these predictors around the Bay of Bengal. The two predictors combined accounted for 39.5% of the magnitude of the SST changes between the July–August and October–November–December periods over the Western Pole of the Indian Ocean Dipole, subsequently impacting EEA rainfall. MLR models were defined yielding cross‐validated correlations between observed and predicted values of seasonal totals and number of wet days ranging from 0.60 to 0.75, depending on the subregion. MLR models could not be developed over a few of the subregions suggesting that the local factors could have masked the global and regional signals encompassed in the additional potential predictors.

Welcome to Oceanography (SMR 411). This course is offered to both Meteorology students and atmospheric students. While this course does not require pre-requisites, a basic knowledge on climate and atmospheric circulation will enable the leaner to comprehend the concepts presented in the course.

Oceanography is the study of the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the world ocean. All the global oceans together with the seas cover nearly three-quarters of the surface of the earth. The major goals of oceanography are to understand the geologic and geochemical processes involved in the evolution and alteration of the ocean and its basin, to evaluate the interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere so that greater knowledge of climatic variations can be attained, and to describe how the biological productivity in the sea is controlled.

Oceans play an important role on weather and climate. Have you ever heard of El Niño, tropical cyclones, the Atlantic hurricane season and storm surges? How does the oceans contribute to these phenomena? These and many other interesting features will be learnt in this course.

The human body louse, Pediculus humanus, showed eighteen midgut proteins ranging between 12 and 117 kDa, when analysed by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. Seven of them (12 kDa, 17 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 40 kDa, 55 kDa and 97 kDa) were major bands based on their intensity of staining. The immunization of rabbits with a midgut extract elicited the production of protective polyclonal antibodies. These antibodies reacted strongly with all major midgut proteins as well as with 63 kDa and 117 kDa proteins when tested by the Western blot technique. The analysis of the proteins revealed that the 12 kDa, 25 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 45 kDa, 87 kDa and 97 kDa proteins are glycosylated and none of them contained a lipid moiety. By electroelution, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa were purified. On trypsinization, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa produced four major fragments (F1, F2, F3, and F4) when resolved on a 18% SDS-PAGE. The F1 fragment of the 35 kDa protein reacted with the polyclonal antibodies by the immunoblot technique.

The human body louse, Pediculus humanus, showed eighteen midgut proteins ranging between 12 and 117 kDa, when analysed by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. Seven of them (12 kDa, 17 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 40 kDa, 55 kDa and 97 kDa) were major bands based on their intensity of staining. The immunization of rabbits with a midgut extract elicited the production of protective polyclonal antibodies. These antibodies reacted strongly with all major midgut proteins as well as with 63 kDa and 117 kDa proteins when tested by the Western blot technique. The analysis of the proteins revealed that the 12 kDa, 25 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 45 kDa, 87 kDa and 97 kDa proteins are glycosylated and none of them contained a lipid moiety. By electroelution, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa were purified. On trypsinization, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa produced four major fragments (F1, F2, F3, and F4) when resolved on a 18% SDS-PAGE. The F1 fragment of the 35 kDa protein reacted with the polyclonal antibodies by the immunoblot technique.

The haemolymph of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans morsitans, contains a high (lipophorin) and a low molecular weight protein of high densities, 1.11 and 1.29 g/ml, respectively. The purification of the proteins was achieved by a combination of density gradient ultracentrifugation and reported gel permeation chromatography. The lipophorin is of high molecular weight (M(r) integral of 600,000) and consists of two apoproteins, apolipophorin I (M(r) integral of 250,000) and apolipophorin II (M(r) integral of 80,000) both of which are glycosylated. Lipophorin also has a pI of 6.1. However, electrophoresis under non-denaturing and denaturing conditions showed the low molecular weight protein to be a single polypeptide chain (M(r) integral of 23,000). Amino acid analysis revealed a relatively high content of the acidic amino acids as well as serine and glycine. The protein contained lipids as shown by Sudan Black staining but was unglycosylated. Using rabbit antiserum against the isolated protein in immunodiffusion and immunoblotting experiments, no cross-reactivity was detected with haemolymph samples from insects representing six orders. In conclusion, the finding of lipophorin suggests that, although flies primarily utilize proline for their energy needs, there is an active transport mechanism for the supply of lipid requirements. However, the results for the low molecular weight protein indicate that the protein is unique to Glossina, suggesting that it may have an important role in the physiology of this insect and is therefore a significant target for vector management.

The haemolymph of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans morsitans, contains a high (lipophorin) and a low molecular weight protein of high densities, 1.11 and 1.29 g/ml, respectively. The purification of the proteins was achieved by a combination of density gradient ultracentrifugation and reported gel permeation chromatography. The lipophorin is of high molecular weight (M(r) integral of 600,000) and consists of two apoproteins, apolipophorin I (M(r) integral of 250,000) and apolipophorin II (M(r) integral of 80,000) both of which are glycosylated. Lipophorin also has a pI of 6.1. However, electrophoresis under non-denaturing and denaturing conditions showed the low molecular weight protein to be a single polypeptide chain (M(r) integral of 23,000). Amino acid analysis revealed a relatively high content of the acidic amino acids as well as serine and glycine. The protein contained lipids as shown by Sudan Black staining but was unglycosylated. Using rabbit antiserum against the isolated protein in immunodiffusion and immunoblotting experiments, no cross-reactivity was detected with haemolymph samples from insects representing six orders. In conclusion, the finding of lipophorin suggests that, although flies primarily utilize proline for their energy needs, there is an active transport mechanism for the supply of lipid requirements. However, the results for the low molecular weight protein indicate that the protein is unique to Glossina, suggesting that it may have an important role in the physiology of this insect and is therefore a significant target for vector management.

Lipophorin was isolated from the haemolymph of adult tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans morsitans, by ultracentrifugation in a potassium bromide density gradient. 2. The tsetse fly lipophorin (Mr congruent to 600,000) has a density of congruent to 1.11 g/ml and consists of two apoproteins, apolipophorin-I (apoLp-I, Mr congruent to 250,000) and apolipophorin-II (apoLp-II, Mr congruent to 80,000), both of which are glycosylated as shown by staining with periodate-Schiff reagent. The protein complex is composed of 49% protein and 51% lipids. 3. The finding of lipophorin in tsetse fly haemolymph suggests that, although these flies primarily utilize proline for their energy needs, there is an active transport mechanism for the supply of lipid requirements.

Lipophorin was isolated from the haemolymph of adult tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans morsitans, by ultracentrifugation in a potassium bromide density gradient. 2. The tsetse fly lipophorin (Mr congruent to 600,000) has a density of congruent to 1.11 g/ml and consists of two apoproteins, apolipophorin-I (apoLp-I, Mr congruent to 250,000) and apolipophorin-II (apoLp-II, Mr congruent to 80,000), both of which are glycosylated as shown by staining with periodate-Schiff reagent. The protein complex is composed of 49% protein and 51% lipids. 3. The finding of lipophorin in tsetse fly haemolymph suggests that, although these flies primarily utilize proline for their energy needs, there is an active transport mechanism for the supply of lipid requirements.

C1 neurotoxin of Clostridium botulinum strains C-Stockholm (C-ST), C beta-Yoichi, C-468, CD6F, and C-CB19 and type D toxin of strains D-1873 and D-CB16 were purified by gel filtration, ion exchange, and affinity chromatographies. The purified toxins had di-chain structure made of heavy and light chains. The toxins of C beta-Yoichi, C-468, CD6F, and C-CB19 reacted with anti-C-ST heavy chain and anti-C-ST light chain in immunodiffusion tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, whereas D-CB16 toxin reacted with anti-D-1873 heavy chain and anti-D-1873 light chain. However, C-6813 toxin reacted with anti-D-1873 heavy chain and anti-C-ST light chain but not with anti-C-ST heavy chain or anti-D-1873 light chain immunoglobulin G. These results indicate common antigens in the heavy chains of C-6813 and D-1873 toxins and in the light chains of C-6813 and C-ST toxins. Further, they provide evidence for heterogeneity within type C1 toxin subunits.

OBJECTIVE: Screening and biochemical characterisation of trypanosome-lysing factor (trypanolysin) from non-vector insect, Schistocerca gregaria. DESIGN: Laboratory based experiment. SETTING: Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi. RESULTS: Lysis of isolated trypanosomes was demonstrated with midgut homogenates of natural vector Glossina morsitans centralis as well in non-vector insects. The highest trypanolytic activity was observed in midgut homogenate of the desert locust. Schistocerca gregaria followed by the cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L). Further studies on the S. gregaria trypanolytic factor showed its proteinaceous nature due to its sensitivity to temperatures above 40 degrees C and to proteases. Additionally, the factor showed lectin-like properties since the activity was blocked by D-glucosamine. CONCLUSION: The trypanolytic factor has the potential of being used to modulate tsetse fly vectorial capacity.

C1 neurotoxin of Clostridium botulinum strains C-Stockholm (C-ST), C beta-Yoichi, C-468, CD6F, and C-CB19 and type D toxin of strains D-1873 and D-CB16 were purified by gel filtration, ion exchange, and affinity chromatographies. The purified toxins had di-chain structure made of heavy and light chains. The toxins of C beta-Yoichi, C-468, CD6F, and C-CB19 reacted with anti-C-ST heavy chain and anti-C-ST light chain in immunodiffusion tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, whereas D-CB16 toxin reacted with anti-D-1873 heavy chain and anti-D-1873 light chain. However, C-6813 toxin reacted with anti-D-1873 heavy chain and anti-C-ST light chain but not with anti-C-ST heavy chain or anti-D-1873 light chain immunoglobulin G. These results indicate common antigens in the heavy chains of C-6813 and D-1873 toxins and in the light chains of C-6813 and C-ST toxins. Further, they provide evidence for heterogeneity within type C1 toxin subunits.

Lipophorin was isolated from the haemolymph of adult tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans morsitans, by ultracentrifugation in a potassium bromide density gradient. 2. The tsetse fly lipophorin (Mr congruent to 600,000) has a density of congruent to 1.11 g/ml and consists of two apoproteins, apolipophorin-I (apoLp-I, Mr congruent to 250,000) and apolipophorin-II (apoLp-II, Mr congruent to 80,000), both of which are glycosylated as shown by staining with periodate-Schiff reagent. The protein complex is composed of 49% protein and 51% lipids. 3. The finding of lipophorin in tsetse fly haemolymph suggests that, although these flies primarily utilize proline for their energy needs, there is an active transport mechanism for the supply of lipid requirements.

BackgroundOsgood-Schlatter disease is a common cause of anterior knee pain inthe adolescent. Treatment is usually conservative with surgery reservedfor those who do not respond to this treatment. There is little publishedwork regarding the experience with the disease in our local set up. This series documents the experience with 35 adolescents treated for the disease.DesignCase seriesSubjectsThirty five adolescents with clinical and radiological diagnoses ofOsgood-Schlatter disease at Nairobi and Kenyatta National Hospitals,between 2001and 2007.MethodPatients were evaluated for demographics, knee involvement, activitiesassociated with pain and treatment outcomeResultsThere were 28 males and 7 females, aged 10 to 16 years (mean 12.8years). Thirteen had bilateral knee involvement. Twenty two were involved in active sports while the rest had constant pain and unable to sit or kneel. A family history of the disease was documented in one case.Thirty adolescents responded well to the conservative treatment. Inthe five adolescents who underwent surgery, the patella tendon wasedematous with thickening of the tendon sheath and neovascularisation.All the operated adolescents returned to active sports with 6 weeks after the surgery.ConclusionOsgood-Schlatter disease is a self-limiting condition in majority ofadolescents. Surgery when indicated has an excellent outcome.

Abstract in proceedings of Biotech SA 93 held at Rhodes University, 31 January-3 February 1993

Immunization of rabbits with a faecal extract of the human body louse (Pediculus humanus) induced a high titre of specific IgG. The mean weight of blood taken by females fed on the immunized rabbits was significantly lower (29%) than taken by females fed on the control rabbits. The mean number of eggs per female fed on the immunized rabbits was significantly lower than for females fed on the control rabbits. The hatchability of the eggs laid by lice fed on immunized rabbits (91%) was significantly lower than of those fed on control rabbits (94%). The rate of development of nymphs fed on control rabbits was significantly higher than those fed on the immunized rabbits. There was no difference in survival rates of lice fed on immunized and control rabbits.

The human body louse, Pediculus humanus, showed eighteen midgut proteins ranging between 12 and 117 kDa, when analysed by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. Seven of them (12 kDa, 17 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 40 kDa, 55 kDa and 97 kDa) were major bands based on their intensity of staining. The immunization of rabbits with a midgut extract elicited the production of protective polyclonal antibodies. These antibodies reacted strongly with all major midgut proteins as well as with 63 kDa and 117 kDa proteins when tested by the Western blot technique. The analysis of the proteins revealed that the 12 kDa, 25 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 45 kDa, 87 kDa and 97 kDa proteins are glycosylated and none of them contained a lipid moiety. By electroelution, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa were purified. On trypsinization, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa produced four major fragments (F1, F2, F3, and F4) when resolved on a 18% SDS-PAGE. The F1 fragment of the 35 kDa protein reacted with the polyclonal antibodies by the immunoblot technique.

OBJECTIVE: Screening and biochemical characterisation of trypanosome-lysing factor (trypanolysin) from non-vector insect, Schistocerca gregaria. DESIGN: Laboratory based experiment. SETTING: Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi. RESULTS: Lysis of isolated trypanosomes was demonstrated with midgut homogenates of natural vector Glossina morsitans centralis as well in non-vector insects. The highest trypanolytic activity was observed in midgut homogenate of the desert locust. Schistocerca gregaria followed by the cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L). Further studies on the S. gregaria trypanolytic factor showed its proteinaceous nature due to its sensitivity to temperatures above 40 degrees C and to proteases. Additionally, the factor showed lectin-like properties since the activity was blocked by D-glucosamine. CONCLUSION: The trypanolytic factor has the potential of being used to modulate tsetse fly vectorial capacity.

OBJECTIVE: Screening and biochemical characterisation of trypanosome-lysing factor (trypanolysin) from non-vector insect, Schistocerca gregaria. DESIGN: Laboratory based experiment. SETTING: Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi. RESULTS: Lysis of isolated trypanosomes was demonstrated with midgut homogenates of natural vector Glossina morsitans centralis as well in non-vector insects. The highest trypanolytic activity was observed in midgut homogenate of the desert locust. Schistocerca gregaria followed by the cockroach, Periplaneta americana (L). Further studies on the S. gregaria trypanolytic factor showed its proteinaceous nature due to its sensitivity to temperatures above 40 degrees C and to proteases. Additionally, the factor showed lectin-like properties since the activity was blocked by D-glucosamine. CONCLUSION: The trypanolytic factor has the potential of being used to modulate tsetse fly vectorial capacity.

Abstract in proceedings of Biotech SA 93 held at Rhodes University, 31 January-3 February 1993

SUMMARY LIII)' lIIorpllOlogiClI changcs ill the goat ,csris after:. sillgle illlraperilOlieal injec,ioll of ethalle ,lillie' I.:lIIeslll"llOnarc (EI )S) werc investigatcd mint; (1Orh liglH alld deCll'On microscopy. The (olllpolind was ;almillistered at two dose Icvels: 75 mgll

Although a relationship between Lapiat and post-Lapita ceramic traditions has long been suspected, a systematic and detailed examination of the similarities and differences has not been previously made. An important first step is to determine the nature of change from one to the other by examining pottery from sites which have the full ceramic sequence. My analyses of the assemblages from Manus and New Island demonstrate continuity between the two traditions.

Reproductive Biology Unit, Department of Animal Physiology, University of Nairobi, Kenya. dochiel@kisian.mimcom.net The presence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in genital secretions is regarded as a risk factor for sexual and perinatal transmission of HIV. A better understanding of correlates of genital shedding of HIV is crucial to the development of effective strategies against transmission of this virus. Events during menstrual cycle are likely to influence local immune responses and viral load in genital secretions, and hence determine susceptibility to HIV or efficiency of virus transmission. We report, in this study, preliminary findings on the relationship of menstrual cycle to genital mucosal and systemic immunity in female olive baboons (Papio anubis) experimentally inoculated with simian/human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV)89.6P.

1. Larval development in Glossina species occurs in utero with the mature third instar larva being deposited after a developmental period of 7 days. 2. In this study, the patterns of cuticular protein synthesis during larval development were analysed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. 3. From the results, four types of cuticle proteins were identified: those specific to larval, pupal and adult cuticles, and others common to all the stages. 4. Few cuticular proteins were synthesized between the first and second larval instars. By the third larval instar (two days before larviposition), a large number of proteins (Mr < or = 30 kDa) were induced. These proteins persisted up to the brown pupal stage and showed a rapid decline thereafter. Most of the proteins with molecular weights Mr < or = 30 kDa were undetectable at apolysis (5 days after larviposition). 5. By day 15 of the pupal stage, the number of cuticle proteins was very small. The protein profile during the pupal stages remained relatively constant. This was probably due to the fact that the pupal cuticle does not provide any protection since it is itself enclosed at all times within the protective puparium.

The efficacy of bloodmeal digestion in teneral Glossina morsitans centralis fed on rabbits immunized with tsetse fly midgut extracts was progressively monitored over a period of 96 hours. Flies fed on immunized rabbits showed reduced rate of bloodmeal digestion as compared to the controls. Although there was insignificant difference in the rate of bloodmeal digestion upto 24 hours post-feeding in later stages of digestion there was quite a significant difference. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic patterns of bloodmeal drawn from the posterior sections of the midgut demonstrated that, bloodmeal is completely degraded in the midgut after 96 hours in the control flies, while substantial amount is still undigested in the experimental flies. However, not much difference in the rates of digestion was observed with bloodmeal drawn from the anterior section of the midgut. These results suggests that when flies are fed on rabbits immunized with tsetse fly midgut extract, there is an impairment on the efficiency of digestion. The anti-midgut antibodies could be interfering with either the induction or proteolytic activity of the midgut enzymes.

The human body louse, Pediculus humanus, showed eighteen midgut proteins ranging between 12 and 117 kDa, when analysed by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. Seven of them (12 kDa, 17 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 40 kDa, 55 kDa and 97 kDa) were major bands based on their intensity of staining. The immunization of rabbits with a midgut extract elicited the production of protective polyclonal antibodies. These antibodies reacted strongly with all major midgut proteins as well as with 63 kDa and 117 kDa proteins when tested by the Western blot technique. The analysis of the proteins revealed that the 12 kDa, 25 kDa, 29 kDa, 35 kDa, 45 kDa, 87 kDa and 97 kDa proteins are glycosylated and none of them contained a lipid moiety. By electroelution, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa were purified. On trypsinization, the proteins of 35 kDa and 63 kDa produced four major fragments (F1, F2, F3, and F4) when resolved on a 18% SDS-PAGE. The F1 fragment of the 35 kDa protein reacted with the polyclonal antibodies by the immunoblot technique.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a simulation model for dental arch shapes. DESIGN: Analysis of measurements of dental casts to determine a general second degree equation for the dental arches. SETTING: Department of Human Anatomy and School of Computing and Informatics, University of Nairobi. SUBJECTS: The measurement of dental casts, 30 (15M and 15F) each from three Kenyan ethnic groups (Maasai, Kalenjin, Kikuyu), aged 12 years. RESULTS: The arches change their shapes from a parabola to an ellipse, governed by the boundary conditions at the position of the canine tooth, based on the general second degree equation for the conic sections. CONCLUSION: The simulation model graphically confirms the change from parabolic to elliptic shapes of dental arches with boundary conditions at the canine. This could be used to show the changes in dental arches for other ethnic groups.

Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College School of Medicine, London, UK. Previous attempts to determine the interactions between filariasis transmission intensity, infection and chronic disease have been limited by a lack of a theoretical framework that allows the explicit examination of mechanisms that may link these variables at the community level. Here, we show how deterministic mathematical models, in conjunction with analyses of standardized field data from communities with varying parasite transmission intensities, can provide a particularly powerful framework for investigating this topic. These models were based on adult worm population dynamics, worm initiated chronic disease and two major forms of acquired immunity (larval- versus adult-worm generated) explicitly linked to community transmission intensity as measured by the Annual Transmission Potential (ATP). They were then fitted to data from low, moderate and moderately high transmission communities from East Africa to determine the mechanistic relationships between transmission, infection and observed filarial morbidity. The results indicate a profound effect of transmission intensity on patent infection and chronic disease, and on the generation and impact of immunity on these variables. For infection, the analysis indicates that in areas of higher parasite transmission, community-specific microfilarial rates may increase proportionately with transmission intensity until moderated by the generation of herd immunity. This supports recent suggestions that acquired immunity in filariasis is transmission driven and may be significant only in areas of high transmission. In East Africa, this transmission threshold is likely to be higher than an ATP of at least 100. A new finding from the analysis of the disease data is that per capita worm pathogenicity could increase with transmission intensity such that the prevalences of both hydrocele and lymphoedema, even without immunopathological involvement, may increase disproportionately with transmission intensity. For lymphoedema, this rise may be further accelerated with the onset of immunopathology. An intriguing finding is that there may be at least two types of immunity operating in filariasis: one implicated in anti-infection immunity and generated by past experience of adult worms, the other involved in immune-mediated pathology and based on cumulative experience of infective larvae. If confirmed, these findings have important implications for the new global initiative to achieve control of this disease.

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

A case is reported of a 13 year old Kenyan girl who presented at the Kenyatta National Hospital Dental Clinic with multiple mandibular and maxillary cysts, cutaneous lesions and mandibular prognathism. This combination of clinical and radiographic features led to a diagnosis of basal cell nevus syndrome. This paper is the first reported case of the syndrome in Kenya. The significance of thorough clinical inspection and radiographic screening of suspected cases is discussed.

Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) ankylosis is a distressing affliction that denies the victim the benefit of normal diet, careers that require normal speech and causes severe facial disfigurement that aggravates psychological stress. Opinions in current literature portray controversy in its management. Hurried clinicians take shortcuts and partially treat symptoms and often make the condition worse. Others ignore shortcomings and erroneously prescribe their preferred techniques as absolute indication to the peril of the affected children. Gap arthroplasty if applied in a growing maxillofacial skeleton as in children, causes iatrogenic arrest of facial growth. The intended correction of facial disfigurement is therefore not achieved. Early detection and immediate psychological support by excision and reconstruction of ankylosed TMJ with a costochondral graft, improves patient comfort and rehabilitation when used as a planned part of a comprehensive therapy. This paper questions prior varied opinions and discusses scientific baseline considerations in management of long standing TMJ ankylosis in children in relatively affordable circumstances.

The decision to pay out earnings or retain dividends has been a subject of debate for many scholars. The effect of dividend on the firm value and cost of capital have been covered in attempt to resolve the dividend puzzle. This research paper tests the applicability of constant dividend model by companies listed at the Nairobi stock exchange. Data was collected from annual reports and share price schedules obtained from Nairobi stock exchange and Capital market Authority for a population of 20 companies that paid dividends consistently from 2002 to 2008. The data was then analyzed by re-computing the dividends that should have been paid if the dividend constant model was applied. This recomputed figure was later compared to the dividend as paid out by the companies thought the years of study. Paired sample t-test statistic was also performed to determine whether there is a significant difference between the two dividend figures. The findings of the research established that the dividend model was not employed by the companies listed at the Nairobi stock exchange. Most firms instead adopted stable and predictable policy where a specific amount of dividend per share each year was paid periodically. In some years there was a slight adjustment of the dividend paid after an increase in earnings, but only by a sustainable amount. The study shows that the relationship between the stock market prices and the dividend paid from the constant dividend model is uneven from one year to another and where there was a relationship it was insignificant. Though a share would be highly priced, a high dividend per share was not always declared.

There is a high prevalence of ocular abnormalities in children with physical and mental
disabilities which are often overlooked due to the difficulties encountered while
examining them.
OBJECTIVES
To describe the pattern of ocular abnormalities, their correlation with the physical
disorders and describe associated risk factors in children attending the Occupational
therapy clinic at KNH.
STUDY DESIGN
Cross sectional hospital based study at the Occupational therapy clinic in KNH.A
hundred and eighty seven children were examined." from both the general paediatric unit
and the sensory integration unit.
RESULTS
A total of 187 children were examined, males were 109(58%) and females were 78(42%).
The mean age was 2.56 years. The youngest child was 0.25 years and the oldest patient
being 13 years with a range of 12.75 years .. The majority of the children were between
one and two years, representing 45.5% of the whole group. Majority of the patients had
cerebral palsy, 160(85.6%), while ADHD and autism had almost equal proportions,
20(10.7%) and 18(9.6%) respectively. Only one child had learning disability, which
represented 0.5%. Some patients had multiple diagnoses. Among the children, 62% had
ocular anomalies. Children with CP had a much higher prevalence (58.3%) compared to
the sensory integration deficit group (3.7%). The common ocular abnormalities included
cortical visual impairment 48.7%, refractive errors 39% and squints 34.2%. Other less
frequent findings included strabismic amblopia13.4%, nystagmus 12.8%, and optic
atrophy 5.3%. Corneal scars, cataracts, maculopathy and eyelid anomalies comprised of
small proportion (5%). Association between physical disability and ocular anomalies was
noted in patients with cerebral palsy compared with sensory integration group.
Strabismus, cortical visual impairment and myopia were more likely to occur in patients
with cerebral palsy. Significant hyperopia was noted only in the cerebral palsy group.

There was no significant association noted between amblyopia, nystagmus and optic
atrophy and either of the physical disability. Some of the known risk factors for the
physical disabilities were observed to have an association with the ocular anomalies.
Strabismus and cortical visual impairment were more likely to occur in patient with
neonatal jaundice, while refractive errors in patients with congenital causes and optic
atrophy in patients with meningitis. No significant association was noted between
nystagmus, and amblyopia and any of the risk factors. Co-morbid conditions associated
with the physical conditions included speech (29.9%), epilepsy (18.7%), mental
retardation (MR) 8%, dental problems 8%, hearing loss 6.4% and breathing difficulties
4.3%.
CONCLUSION .•
Visual disabilities in children with physical disabilities were common. Cortical visual
impairment, refractive errors, squint and amblyopia, were seen in a large proportion of
these children. Children with CP had a much higher prevalence compared to the sensory
integration deficit group.
RECOMMENDATION
All Children with cerebral palsy and sensory integration deficits should be referred to
ophthalmologist and low vision specialist for assessment as part of a broad
multidisciplinary approach to their management. The occupational, speech and hearing
therapists should work closely with the low vision specialists in co-ordinating the
physical and ocular rehabilitation. Low vision unit should be started at KNH and
specialist should be trained to provide the much needed services to these children. Follow
up of the patients for evaluation of long term outcome of the visual interventions to be
offered with the aim of improving the quality of treatment options.

Objectives: To describe the pattern of ocular abnormalities, their correlation with the physical disorders and describe associated risk factors in children attending the Occupational therapy clinic at Kenyatta National Hospital.
Design: Cross sectional hospital based.
Subjects: A hundred and eighty seven children, aged between three months and 13 years with cerebral palsy and sensory integration deficits.
Results: Majority of the patients had cerebral palsy(CP), 160(85.6%), while in those with sensory integration deficit(SID), attention- deficit / hyperactive disorder and autism had almost equal proportions, 20(10.7%) and 18(9.6%) respectively. Among all the children, 62% had ocular anomalies. Children with CP had a much higher prevalence (58.3%) compared to SID group (3.7%). The common ocular abnormalities included cortical visual impairment (48.7%), refractive errors (39%) and squints (34.2%). Association between physical disability and ocular anomalies was noted more in patients with CP compared with SID. Strabismus, cortical visual impairment and myopia were more likely to occur in patients with CP. Significant hyperopia was noted only in CP patients. Strabismus and cortical visual impairment were more likely to occur in patient with neonatal jaundice, while refractive errors in patients with congenital causes and optic atrophy in patients with meningitis.
Conclusion: Visual disabilities in children with physical disabilities were common. Cortical visual impairment, refractive errors and squints were more common. Children with CP had a much higher prevalence compared to the SID group.
Recommendation: All Children with CP and SID should be referred to ophthalmologist and low vision specialist for assessment.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology, referral system and visual outcomes of eye injuries in children. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) Nairobi, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Children aged upto 15 years with eye injuries hospitalised between January 1 st, 2000 and December 31st, 2004. RESULTS: There were 182 cases. Male: female ratio was 2:1. Median age was seven years (IQR 4-10) with bimodal peaks at four and seven years. The most common cause (35%) was sticks. One hundred and twenty seven cases (70%) were open- globe injuries. One hundred and fourty one (77%) presented with visual acuity worse than 6/60 seven eyes were badly damaged and were removed (evisceration enucleation). Ninety five children (52%) were referred from Central and Eastern provinces while 87 (48%) were from Nairobi province. Most [26 (31%)] cases in Nairobi were from Kibera, Dandora and Kariobangi. Median duration between injury and arrival at first medical facility was one day but three days from injury to KNH after referral. Only 29% got tetanus toxoid, antibiotics, analgesics or eyepads at the referring facility. Median hospitalisation was seven days with a median bill of KSh 5,275/= (US$ 70.00). Fourty four children (24%) had their bills waived for inability to pay. At the last recorded follow-up 81 (57%) children had better visual acuity, 16.9% had light perception (PL). Corneal scar was the most common complication. CONCLUSIONS: Eye injuries in KNH are severe, mostly affecting pre-school children from low-income settings. There is delay in arriving at KNH and inadequate care at the referring centres. Outcomes were poor although better than on admission. This may affect education, careers and quality-of-life. Injury-prevention programmes are recommended. PMID: 18543526 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Department of Ophthalmology, College of Health Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology, referral system and visual outcomes of eye injuries in children. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. SETTING: Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) Nairobi, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Children aged upto 15 years with eye injuries hospitalised between January 1 st, 2000 and December 31st, 2004. RESULTS: There were 182 cases. Male: female ratio was 2:1. Median age was seven years (IQR 4-10) with bimodal peaks at four and seven years. The most common cause (35%) was sticks. One hundred and twenty seven cases (70%) were open- globe injuries. One hundred and fourty one (77%) presented with visual acuity worse than 6/60 seven eyes were badly damaged and were removed (evisceration enucleation). Ninety five children (52%) were referred from Central and Eastern provinces while 87 (48%) were from Nairobi province. Most [26 (31%)] cases in Nairobi were from Kibera, Dandora and Kariobangi. Median duration between injury and arrival at first medical facility was one day but three days from injury to KNH after referral. Only 29% got tetanus toxoid, antibiotics, analgesics or eyepads at the referring facility. Median hospitalisation was seven days with a median bill of KSh 5,275/= (US$ 70.00). Fourty four children (24%) had their bills waived for inability to pay. At the last recorded follow-up 81 (57%) children had better visual acuity, 16.9% had light perception (PL). Corneal scar was the most common complication. CONCLUSIONS: Eye injuries in KNH are severe, mostly affecting pre-school children from low-income settings. There is delay in arriving at KNH and inadequate care at the referring centres. Outcomes were poor although better than on admission. This may affect education, careers and quality-of-life. Injury-prevention programmes are recommended. PMID: 18543526 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

n/a

The objective of the study was to determine the trends in ocular tumours that affect the horse in
Kenya and to relate the histological characteristics to the clinico-epidemiological parameters.
The study design used the retrospective and prospective suspected cases presented to the
Department for histological diagnosis and from which a neoplastic diagnosis of the eye or its
adnexa was recorded. The procedure involved retrieval of diagnostic reports from retrospective
cases and histopathological examination of both retrospective and prospective cases. Each
case was evaluated for the type and frequency of histological lesions and clinicoepidemiological
data. Parameters included analyses of age, sex, breed, geographical origin,
diagnosis, location of neoplasms, the pathology of the lesion, and the clinical features
presented. The histological features were compared between cases and cellular behaviour was
correlated with clinico-epidemiological parameters.
The results showed that the most common ocular tumour was squamous cell carcinoma of the
adnexa. Occasional diagnosis included melanoma, adenoma, fibroma and lymphoma of the
adnexa. In a few cases, non neoplastic growths such as lymphoid hyperplasia of third eyelid
were key differential diagnoses. True ocular tumours were rarely observed.

BACKGROUND:

Ocular rhinosporidiosis is a chronic granulomatous infection caused by a newly classified organism that is neither a fungus nor bacterium. It often presents as a benign conjunctival tumour but may mimic other ocular conditions. It is most often described in India. In Africa cases have been reported from South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Uganda, Congo and Ivory Coast.

CASE PRESENTATION:

A 54 year old man was seen in Kenya with a lesion that resembled a conjunctival papilloma. We report resemblance to conjunctival papilloma and the result of vital staining with 0.05% Toluidine Blue.

CONCLUSION:

Ocular rhinosporidiosis occurs in East Africa. It may resemble conjunctival squamous papilloma. Vital staining with 0.05% Toluidine blue dye did not distinguish the two lesions well.

To describe ocular surface disorders associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). : Narrative review. : Ocular surface neoplastic conditions, such as Kaposi's sarcoma, conjunctival lymphoma and ocular squamous cell carcinoma along with blepharitis, dry eye disease, and vernal keratoconjunctivitis, constitute ocular surface complications in HIV-infected individuals. : This review will provide a summary of clinical presentations and treatment options for the most common HIV-related ocular surface diseases, indicating the need for a comprehensive ocular examination including ocular surface in all HIV patients.

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

Normal 0 false false false MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 st1:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} Macrophytes have been shown to perform important ecological roles in Lake Naivasha. Consequently, various studies regarding the impact of biotic factors on the macrophytes have been advanced but related studies on environmental parameters have lagged behind. In an attempt to address this gap, sampling on floating species and submergents was carried out in eight sampling sites in 2003 to investigate how they were influenced by a set of environmental factors. Soil texture (sandy sediments; P < 0.05, regression coefficient = - 0.749) and wind were the most important environmental parameters influencing the distribution and abundance of floating macrophytes. Combination of soil texture and lake-bed slope explained the most (86.3%) variation encountered in the submergents. Continuous translocation of the floating dominant water hyacinth to the western parts by wind has led to displacement of the submergents from those areas. In view of these findings, the maintenance and preservation of the steep Crescent Lake basin whose substratum is dominated by sand thus hosting most submergents remain important, if the whole functional purpose of the macrophytes is to be sustained.

n/a

Separation of midgut membrane proteins from the tick, Ambylomma variegatum, using a nonionic detergent (Triton X-114), resulted in two protein fractions, namely DET (detergent) and AQ (aqueous). In immunoblotting analysis with polyclonal antibodies against these fractions, 4 proteins (Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000, 86,000 and 95,000,) and 2 proteins (M, approximately 54,000 and 67,000) were detected in the DET and AQ fractions, respectively. Three of the DET fraction proteins Mr approximately 27,000, 67,000 and 95,000 were glycosylated since they bound to the lectin, concanavalin A. In 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the AQ and DET fraction proteins were found to be acidic in nature. In a series of bioassay experiments, rabbits were first immunised with both DET and AQ fractions and then infested with ticks. The egg batch weights of these ticks were reduced by 50% compared to control ticks. Furthermore, there was a significant reduction in the hatchability of eggs laid by ticks fed on rabbits previously immunised with both DET (14%) and AQ (33%) fractions. Based on the egg hatchability, the reproductive capacity of ticks was reduced by 77 and 48% by DET and AQ fractions, respectively.

Normal 0 false false false MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 st1:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} Macrophytes have been shown to perform important ecological roles in Lake Naivasha. Consequently, various studies regarding the impact of biotic factors on the macrophytes have been advanced but related studies on environmental parameters have lagged behind. In an attempt to address this gap, sampling on floating species and submergents was carried out in eight sampling sites in 2003 to investigate how they were influenced by a set of environmental factors. Soil texture (sandy sediments; P < 0.05, regression coefficient = - 0.749) and wind were the most important environmental parameters influencing the distribution and abundance of floating macrophytes. Combination of soil texture and lake-bed slope explained the most (86.3%) variation encountered in the submergents. Continuous translocation of the floating dominant water hyacinth to the western parts by wind has led to displacement of the submergents from those areas. In view of these findings, the maintenance and preservation of the steep Crescent Lake basin whose substratum is dominated by sand thus hosting most submergents remain important, if the whole functional purpose of the macrophytes is to be sustained.

This paper reports the detailed results of a study of the impact of the Health Workers for Change (HWFC) workshop series on clients' perceptions of health services, relationships within the health centre and relations between the health facility and the district health system. The study was carried out in three stages: baseline, intervention and evaluation over a period of 20 months. Data, both qualitative and quantitative, were collected at three levels: client, facility and system. Results indicate that relations between health workers and clients improved a great deal after the intervention while those between the facility and the system remained to a large extent unchanged. The paper concludes that, with external support and help, especially from the health system level, health workers can work towards improving health services and their job satisfaction, which can lead to better health worker-client relations.

This paper reports the detailed results of a study of the impact of the Health Workers for Change (HWFC) workshop series on clients' perceptions of health services, relationships within the health centre and relations between the health facility and the district health system. The study was carried out in three stages: baseline, intervention and evaluation over a period of 20 months. Data, both qualitative and quantitative, were collected at three levels: client, facility and system. Results indicate that relations between health workers and clients improved a great deal after the intervention while those between the facility and the system remained to a large extent unchanged. The paper concludes that, with external support and help, especially from the health system level, health workers can work towards improving health services and their job satisfaction, which can lead to better health worker-client relations.