Breast-feeding by infants exposed to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) provides an opportunity to assess the role played by repeated HIV-1 exposure in eliciting HIV-1-specific immunity and in defining whether immune responses correlate with protection from infection. Breast-feeding infants born to HIV-1-seropositive women were assessed for HLA-selected HIV-1 peptide-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte interferon (IFN)-gamma responses by means of enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assays at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age. Responses were deemed to be positive when they reached > or = 50 HIV-1-specific sfu/1 x 10(6) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and were at least twice those of negative controls. A total of 807 ELISpot assays were performed for 217 infants who remained uninfected with HIV-1 at approximately 12 months of age; 101 infants (47%) had at least 1 positive ELISpot result (median, 78-170 sfu/1 x 10(6) PBMCs). The prevalence and magnitude of responses increased with age (P = .01 and P = .007, respectively); the median log(10) value for HIV-1-specific IFN-gamma responses increased by 1.0 sfu/1 x 10(6) PBMCs/month (P < .001) between 1 and 12 months of age. Of 141 HIV-1-uninfected infants with 1-month ELISpot results, 10 (7%) acquired HIV-1 infection (0/16 with positive vs. 10/125 [8%] with negative ELISpot results; P = .6). Higher values for log(10) HIV-1-specific spot-forming units at 1 month of age were associated with a decreased risk of HIV-1 infection, adjusted for maternal HIV-1 RNA level (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.09 [95% confidence interval, 0.01-0.72]).. Breast-feeding HIV-1-exposed uninfected infants frequently had HIV-1-specific IFN-gamma responses. Greater early HIV-1-specific IFN-gamma responses were associated with decreased HIV-1 acquisition.

Increased international pnces of petroleum-based products, rapid depletion of fuel-wood supplies and increased environmental concerns over air quality, global warming and acid rain, among other factors, have prompted a world-wide growth of interest in the utilization of renewable energy resources for electrification purposes, especially in the isolated rural areas. This research study was done in order to know quantitatively, how much potential electrical power can be harnessed from the hydro and solar resources in Kenya as well as its seasonal and daily profiles for the purpose of rural electrification. The daily profile of the rural loads was also determined and compared with the profiles of the two renewable energy sources (solar and hydro). Further, the cost of electrical energy from the two renewable energy sources was compared with that obtained from extension of the grid network. Mini- and micro-hydropower sites and the potential electrical power at each site were determined with the aid of 1:50,0000 scale topographic maps and river flow data available at the Survey of Kenya Institute and Ministry of Water Development respectively. On the other hand, solar sites and the potential electrical power associated with each site were determined with the aid of solar radiation data from Kenya Meteorological Department. Nairobi. The potential electrical power at each solar site was determined assuming 12% solar cell conversion efficiency. A daily rural load curve was determined from consumption data taken at Gachororo Village, Thika District. Further data on country-wide rural loads was obtained from Kenya Power and Lighting Company. (vi) The cost of electrical energy from both small hydropower and grid supplies was found to be strongly dependent on the annual capacity factor and the supply-to-load distance. The cost of solar supplies was strongly influenced by the fact that the ratings of the solar panels available on the market are low, being mostly less than 100 peak watts. Hence solar PV installations have very high cost per kW of installed capacity, which reflects high cost per kWhof electrical energy delivered. Gachororo Village is about 100 metres from the nearest grid point and 10 km from the nearest small hydro site. At an annual capacity factor of 30%, grid extension was the cheapest way of power supply to the village (KSh 2.60 per unit), followed by small hydropower (KSh 16.60 per unit) and finally by solar photovoltaic supply (KSh 155.30 for a 51 W installation). The distance beyond which grid supply becomes more expensive compared to small hydro supply was found to be 35.33 km at 30% annual capacity factor.

HIV-1-related inflammation is associated with increased levels of biomarkers of vascular adhesion and endothelial activation, and may increase production of the inflammatory protein angiopoietin-2 (ANG-2), an adverse prognostic biomarker in severe systemic infection. We hypothesized that antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation would decrease endothelial activation, reducing plasma levels of ANG-2. METHODS: Antiretroviral-naive Kenyan women with advanced HIV infection were followed prospectively. Endothelial activation biomarkers including soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and E-selectin, and plasma ANG-2 and angiopoietin-1 (ANG-1) were tested in stored plasma samples from 0, 6, and 12 months after ART initiation. We used Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank tests to compare endothelial activation biomarkers across time-points, generalized estimating equations to analyze associations with change in log10-transformed biomarkers after ART initiation, and Cox proportional-hazards regression to analyze associations with mortality. RESULTS: The 102 HIV-1-seropositive women studied had advanced infection (median CD4 count, 124 cells/muL). Soluble ICAM-1 and plasma ANG-2 levels decreased at both time-points after ART initiation, with concomitant increases in the beneficial protein ANG-1. Higher ANG-2 levels after ART initiation were associated with higher plasma HIV-1 RNA, oral contraceptive pill use, pregnancy, severe malnutrition, and tuberculosis. Baseline ANG-2 levels were higher among five women who died after ART initiation than among women who did not (median 2.85 ng/mL [inter-quartile range (IQR) 2.47--5.74 ng/mL] versus median 1.32 ng/mL [IQR 0.35--2.18 ng/mL], p = 0.01). Both soluble ICAM-1 and plasma ANG-2 levels predicted mortality after ART initiation. CONCLUSIONS: Biomarkers of endothelial activation decreased after ART initiation in women with advanced HIV-1 infection. Changes in plasma ANG-2 were associated with HIV-1 RNA levels over 12 months of follow-up. Soluble ICAM-1 and plasma ANG-2 levels represent potential biomarkers for adverse outcomes in advanced HIV-1 infection.

The effects of infection of mice with Leishmania major on liver microsomal protein and cytochrome P-450 were examined. The levels of hepatic microsomal protein and cytochrome P-450 were monitored at 6, 7, 9 and 12 weeks post-infection. The results indicated that the amount of hepatic microsomal protein and cytochrome P-450 were unchanged throughout the course of infection with L. major, despite the high degree of parasite proliferation in Kupffer cells and marked reduction in phagocytosis. The current results clearly indicate that Leishmania-induced macrophage suppression has no inhibitory effect on hepatic microsomal protein and cytochrome P-450

The  study found out that Masinga Dam has adversely affected the public health in the communities around the dam. malaria was the most prevalent ailment followed by typhoid fever. Bilharzia has also increased since the dam was constructed.