This report concerns an outbreak that occurred during July/August 1997. Ten pigs from a herd of 181 pigs in a medium-scale, semi-closed piggery in Kiambu District, Kenya, contracted the clinical disease. The main clinical findings in affected pigs included: fever (40.5-41.8 degrees C), prostration, inappetence, dog-sitting posture, abortion, erythema and raised, firm to the touch and easily palpated light pink to dark purple diamond-shaped to square/rectangular spots on the skin around the belly and the back. Based on the pathognomonic skin lesions, a clinical diagnosis of swine erysipelas was made. The diagnosis was confirmed by the isolation of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae organisms from the blood and skin biopsies taken from the affected pigs. Response to treatment with a combination of procaine penicillin and dihydrostreptomycin at the dosage rate of 20,000 IU/kg body weight (based on procaine penicillin) for 3 days was good and all the affected pigs recovered fully. The farm was placed under quarantine to prevent spread of the disease

This article reveals that the concept of education as a process of growth is a difficult one. Philosophers are, therefore, justified in being weary when pondering over its meaning, both in theory and practice. By way of conclusion, the article appreciates the complexities inherent in the growth theory of education, summarizing its major strength and weaknesses. Then it cautions educational planners and practitioners to be weary when, and if, they translate the theory into practice, so that they utilize the strengths inherent in the theory whilst paying attention to the dangers of its inherent weaknesses.

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No abstract available. PMID: 6535699 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Visceral and cutaneous leishmaniases are endemic in some parts of Kenya, where they are transmitted by phlebobotomine sandflies of genus Phlebotomus. This review is a compilation of the currently known distribution of phlebotomine sandflies in the parts of Kenya that have been studied, from the time sandflies were first reported in the country. So far 48 species of sandflies have been identified falling in the genera Phlebotomus Rondani & Berte and Sergentomyia Franca & Parrot. Genus Phlebotomus in Kenya is represented in five subgenera, namely Phlebotomus, Larroussius, Synphlebotomus, Paraphlebotomus and Anaphlebotomus. Genus Sergentomyia has the largest number of sandflies, and is represented in four subgenera, namely Sergentomyia, Sintonius, Grassomyia and Parvidens.

A simple gas chromatographic assay utilising alkali flame ionisation detection is described for the estimation of cyclophosphamide as its trifluoroacetate derivative from plasma. Examination of five patients following intravenous cyclophosphamide gave values of 8.9 h (SD 2.7) for the half-life and 0.061 liters/h/kg (SD 0.011) for whole-body clearance of the drug.

Standard Kiswahili has borrowed various lexical items from many diverse languages. As a result of this borrowing, Standard Kiswahili is at times (erroneously) seen as an admixture language born out of mixing different languages. The purpose of this paper is to show that while Standard Kiswahili has borrowed just like many other languages have, the loan words undergo various adaptation processes that give them a fundamentally Kiswahili and Bantu structure (Iribemwangi 2012). In the adaptation, various strategies are applied and these include substitution, insertion and deletion of both consonants and vowels. These strategies do not just lead to nativization of borrowed lexicon but they do also lead to the realization of the preferred syllable structure. Although Standard Kiswahili has largely maintained its syllable structure, nonetheless, it has had to accede to a few new structures. Using the P-rules and, to a lesser extent, the MP-rules as espoused in Natural Generative Phonology, this paper shows that any rules and structures in a language remain the only rules and structures to the extent that no new rules and processes have entered a language at a given time. Otherwise, the rules of any language are very dynamic and are perpetually prone to change as is exemplified using Standard Kiswahili data.

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Several studies have shown that the release of low molecular weight organic acids is
a major mechanism for solubilising insoluble phosphate by phosphate solubilising
bacteria (PSB). The production of gluconic acid during inorganic phosphate
solubilisation in conjunction with liberation of phosphate and the influence on plant
growth as a function of phosphate solubilisation by endophytic strains was analysed.
Solubilisation of Ca3(PO4)2 in National Botanical Research Institute’s Phosphate
(NBRIP) growth medium varied among the endophytes with P-liberated ranging from
1109.33 μg/ml to 67.3 μg/ml. In all cases, the final supernatant had a significant pH
decrease and this had a direct relation to P-liberated. High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC) analysis of the culture filtrate to quantify gluconic acid
produced by the strains ranged from 33.21±2.34 mg/ml to 2.2 ±0.18 mg/ml. The
results suggest that acidification was the main strategy for solubilising phosphate. In
this study, a clear relationship was observed between supernatant acidification and
P solubilisation from Ca3(PO4)2. However, no significant difference was observed for
key growth parameters in oil seed rape between treatments. The result of this study
indicates in planta expression of P solubilisation traits may be more complex than
those in vitro studies.

The sorption of added inorganic phosphate (P) by eight soils which varied appreciably in their ability to sorb P was evaluated using the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption equations. When the sorption data were plotted according to the conven¬tional Langmuir and linear Freundlich equations, linear relationships were obtained. Regression analysis was used to compute the straight lines obtained. The Freundlich equations gave significantly to highly significantly correlation coefficients (r2 = 0.509 - 0.972) in all the soils tested while the Langmuir equation was non-sig¬nificant in the highest and lowest sorbing soils (r2 0.004 and 0.453 respectively) but was highly to very highly significant in the other soils (r2 = 0.816 - 0.988). The Freundlich equation was, therefore, ade¬quate in describing the sorption data in all the soils tested but with varying precision as shown by the different correlation coeffi¬cients. A comparison of the two equations indicated that Freundlich equation gives the best fit in majority of soils and would, therefore, be recommended for estimating the P-sorption characteristic of soils tested in this work.

To determine the efficacy of phosphate replacement in the therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), 44 patients were randomly assigned to three treatment groups: those who received no phosphate replacement, those who received 15 mmole of sodium phosphate at the fourth hour, or those who received 15 mmole of sodium phosphate at 2, 6, and 10 hours. All patients were treated with intravenous insulin injection (0.1 units/kg/hr), fluids, and potassium. Four hours after a 15-mmole sodium phosphate infusion, the serum phosphate level was 2.8 +/- 0.8 mg/dL vs 2.1 +/- 0.8 mg/dL in the control patients; however, this dose was insufficient to maintain the serum phosphate level at 16 and 24 hours. Forty-five millimoles of phosphate prevented severe hypophosphatemia in all but one patient and produced substantially higher phosphate levels at 8, 16, and 24 hours. Phosphate therapy did not affect the duration of DKA, dose of insulin required to correct the acidosis, abnormal muscle enzyme levels, glucose disappearance, or morbidity and mortality. Although theoretically appealing, phosphate therapy is not an essential part of the therapy for DKA in most patients.

In a bid to determine the HIV-1 subtype variants in transmission in Nairobi and its possible association with clinical status, we screened 207 confirmed HIV-1 positive patients visiting HIV/AIDS laboratory at the Virus Research Centre in Nairobi between January and March 1994. We used a selfmade ELISA obtained from an established panel of HIV-1 V3 loop peptides (ANRS, France) and derived from seven isolates: MN, HXB2, SC, Z6, Z2, ELI and CDC4. Test samples were obtained from 95 blood donors and medical examination attendees, 57 patients with chronic diarrhoea, 31 confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis, 16 with pneumonia and 12 herpes zoster. Out of the total, 21.5% had antibodies against the MN strain, 19.1% had against the Z2 strain while reaction against the HXB2 strain was observed in 17.2%. SC, CDC4, Z6 and ELI had prevalences of 11.5%, 6.2%, 5.3% and 3.8% respectively. Fifteen per cent of the tested sera showed no reaction to any of the used peptides. Strong and significant associations were observed between the total number of strains a sample react to and the clinical state. We infer that both the North American consensus strains (MN and HXB2) and the African isolates (Z2 and Z6) are predominant in Nairobi. The correlation between antibody reactivity and clinical state is an interesting observation that necessitates an expanded study and, the use of strain specific peptides maybe a sensitive and easier method for use for molecular epidemiological purposes. PIP: During January-March 1994, in Nairobi, Kenya, the sera of pre-university students, suspected AIDS/advanced HIV-infection cases, and blood donors were screened for HIV-1 antibodies at the Virus Research Centre. All confirmed HIV-1 positive samples were categorized according to the patient's clinical status. A self-made ELISA was obtained from an established panel of HIV-1 V3 loop peptides and derived from seven isolates (MN and HXB2 [North American strains], SC, CDC4, Z2 and Z6 [African strains], and ELI). The sera of the 22 confirmed HIV-1 negative students were used as negative controls. There were 207 confirmed HIV-1 cases (95 blood donors and 112 suspected AIDS/advanced HIV-infection cases). 64 (31%) and 112 (54%) samples reacted to at least 3 strains and no more than 2 strains, respectively. The remaining 31 (15%) samples did not react to any of the 7 peptide strains. Samples with CD4 cell counts greater than 500 x 1 million reacted significantly to more peptide strains than those with CD4 counts below 200 x 1 million (88% vs. 7%). Reactivity to specific strains were 21.5% for MN, 19.1% for Z2, 17.2% for HXB2, 11.5% for SC, 6.2% for CDC 4, 5.5% for Z6, and 3.8% for ELI. Anti-HXB2 antibodies were more common in blood donors than suspected AIDS/advanced HIV-infection cases (22% vs. 13%). AIDS/advanced HIV-infection cases were more likely to have no antibodies than blood donors (21% vs. 7%). A significant association existed between the number of peptide strains a patient could react to and the clinical state (p 0.01). Specifically, 77% of samples with no V3 antibodies to the seven strains had AIDS or advanced HIV infection while 55% of those which had cross reactivity with three or more strains were asymptomatic. Further research is needed to better understand this correlation. These findings suggest that use of strain specific peptides may be a sensitive and easier method for use for molecular epidemiological purposes.

In field experiments at Katumani in 1982, cowpea cv. Katumani 80 and Vita 4 were grown in chromic luvisol soils and treated with 15N-labelled ammonium sulphate at 20 kg N/ha, with or without 70 kg P/ha. Differences in nodule DW, DM yield, P uptake and tissue N yield were detected between cv. at maturity, but P rate had no effect. Av. seed yields of Katumani 80 and Vita 4 were 1.16 and 1.05 t/ha, resp., and were unaffected by P rate.

Low serum phosphorus levels, sometimes associated with depletion of phosphorus stores, can engender a variety of serious, often life-threatening physiologic changes. The proximate cause of this dangerous situation is usually medical intervention in such conditions as alcoholism and diabetic ketoacidosis, which can produce a shift of phosphorus within the body unless preventive measures are instituted.

The main river supplying Lake Naivasha, Kenya, the Malewa, drains a catchment given over to largely subsistence cultivation and animal husbandry. The lake itself is the focus for an intensive horticultural industry based upon irrigation from the lake. The Malewa, however, is relatively independent of the impact of industry, and so its contribution to eutrophication of the lake was evaluated. Two periods of study, a very wet-dry and a `normal' wet-dry season showed that the river contribution of phosphorus led to a total phosphorus loading of 1.4 g m−2 lake surface ann−1 in the very wet period compared to 0.2 in the `normal'. Chlorophyll `a' in the open water of the lake was significantly related to soluble reactive phosphorus. The lake is now eutrophic by normal limnological criteria.

This work focused on synthesis of Titanium (IV) Oxide and Tungsten (VI) Oxide composite and testing the composite as a photocatalyst in deactivation of Escherichi coli in water. Modified wet chemistry method was used and the synthesized nanoparticles calcined at 575° C, taken through XRay Fluorescence and X-Ray Diffraction. The result showed a particle size diameter of 18.99nm. The nanoparticles photocatalytic inactivation efficacy of Escherichia coli in water was tested. 3M Petrifilms from 3M Microbiology Products, U.S.A., was used for Escherichia coli colony forming units’ counts. ATUV 8W G8 T5 lamp from PHILIPS emitting between 350-600nm was used as energy source. The catalyst reduced Escherichia coli count by log 3.415 at an optimum catalyst amount of 0.75 g/L at pH 7.3 using the Chick-Watson model for disinfection kinetics. This work proved that photocatalysis is a promising technology in water purification with possible and practical opportunities existing especially for small-scale point-of-use water purification units where potable water could be treated for disinfection of pathogens or trace priority pollutants remaining in water distribution network after conventional treatment methods. This work proved that nano particles can provide solutions in treatment of drinking water especially for poor communities living in the tropics.

The possibility of obtaining thermal energy from the sun for household bathing and washing has resulted to growth in market for solar thermal applications with new types of solar absorbers currently being investigated either to compliment or to replace existing ones. This study focuses on CuFeMnO4 absorber paint by addressing aspects which have little attention regarding improvement of optical absorption for higher efficiency such as texturing the metal substrates on which to coat CuFeMnO4 absorber paint. In this study, texturing was done controllably in order to match the incoming solar radiation wavelength and the surface topography and morphology. Textured and untextured aluminum sheets coated with titanium dioxide (TiO2)-bound CuFeMnO4 absorber paint were used to fabricate prototype flat plate solar thermal collectors. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) was chosen here as binder to a spectrally selective CuFeMnO4 absorber paint. The TiO2-bound CuFeMnO4 absorber paint was applied by a simple, cheap and up-scalable dip coating method over the aluminum sheets. The aluminum sheets were electro-chemically textured to enhance optical absorption and photo-thermal conversion efficiency for both the textured and untextured prototypes were compared. The efficiency characterization of the prototype collectors was done by measuring the global solar irradiance, fluid inlet, fluid outlet and ambient temperature. Both instantaneous and steady-state efficiencies were determined mathematically, and it was found that the prototype collector whose absorber plates were textured recorded higher instantaneous and steady-state efficiencies compared to the collector fabricated from untextured aluminum plates.
Keywords: Aluminum, Texturing, Conversion Efficiency, Solar Energy, (TiO2)-bound, CuFeMnO4

Hydro-distilled volatile oils from the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum L. (Lamiaceae) from Meru district in Eastern Kenya were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and also evaluated for antimicrobial activity. The oil was dominated by monoterpens which accounted for 92.48%. This monoterpene fraction was characterized by a high percentage of eugenol (68.8%). The other major monoterpenes were methyl eugenol (13.21%), cis-ocimene (7.47%), trans-ocimene (0.94%), β-pinene (1.10%) and camphor (0.95%). The sesquiterpenes present in fairly good amounts were germacrene D (4.25%) and trans-caryophyllene (1.69%). The minor sesquiterpenes were α-farnesene (0.85%) and β-bisabolene (0.74%). The antimicrobial activities of the essential oils were evaluated against both Gram positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus spp.) and Gram negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosae, Salmonella typhi, Klebisiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis) bacteria and a pathogenic fungus Candida albicans. The oil had pronounced antibacterial and antifungal activities on all the microbes.

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The role of pastoralist women in conflict resolution and management (study funded by SIDA though IMPACT)

The role of pastoralist women in conflict resolution and management (study funded by SIDA though IMPACT)

Although military conflicts are common on the African continent, there is a paucity of data regarding bomb-blast injuries in this region and in Kenya in particular. This paper describes the pattern of maxillofacial injuries sustained after the August 1998 bomb blast that occurred in Nairobi, Kenya. A retrospective cross-sectional study was carried out using hospital-based records of 290 bomb-blast survivors admitted at the Kenyatta National Referral and Teaching Hospital in Nairobi. Using a self-designed form to record information about variables such as the sex and age of the survivors and type of location of soft- and hard-tissue injuries, it was found that of the 290 bomb-blast survivors, 78% had sustained one or more maxillofacial injuries. Soft-tissue injuries (cuts, lacerations or bruises) were the most common, constituting 61.3% of all injuries in the maxillofacial region; 27.6% had severe eye injuries, while 1.4% had fractures in the cranio-facial region. This paper concludes that the effective management of bomb-blast injuries as well as those caused by other types of disaster requires a multidisciplinary approach. The high percentage of maxillofacial injuries confirm that maxillofacial surgeons should form an integral part of this multidisciplinary team.

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The sun releases tremendous amount of energy, which if harnessed would provide all energy needs of mankind. One of the strategies to trap this immense energy is the use of solar modules/panels. However, these solar modules need to be properly sized and installed to be able to function and generate electricity optimally. The successful installation of an off grid Photovoltaic (PV) solar system is a process that begins with a site visit to the area of installation, the determination of the client’s energy needs, installation of the solar PV system, commissioning of the installed solar system and ends with user training. Every step is critical for it determines the final performance of the solar system and hence the delicate balance between a satisfied or unsatisfied client. However, the system sizing step tends to attract more attention for it determines the system size and the matching of the balance of system components and so if this is not properly done, then the entire system may not perform as intended. Most documented sizing methods tend to be too complicated and require significant computer knowledge in simulation, modeling and even programming. For practical purposes, many designers and PV installers, especially in developing countries have basic education may not be well equipped for these complicated sizing methods. Furthermore, very few have been professionally trained in PV solar system Sizing and although there are commercially available sizing software’s, they are too expensive for majority of the people and even if available, they are too complicated for them. In actual sizing therefore, most untrained PV technicians use mere estimates that may not be appropriate for the outcome, more often than not is disappointing. We present a simple sizing method that can easily be learned and applied in a simple calculation, for example in a simple excels sheet formulas for easier sizing of PV systems The method is recommended for adoption in developing countries for faster dissemination of professional PV services in system sizing.

The sun releases tremendous amount of energy, which if harnessed would provide all energy needs of mankind.
One of the strategies to trap this immense energy is the use of solar modules/panels. However, these solar modules need to be properly sized and installed to be able to function and generate electricity optimally. The successful installation of an off grid Photovoltaic (PV) solar system is a process that begins with a site visit to the area of installation, the determination of the client’s energy needs, installation of the solar PV system,
ommissioning of the installed solar system and ends with user training. Every step is critical for it determines the final performance of the solar system and hence the delicate balance between a satisfied or unsatisfied client. However, the system sizing step tends to attract more attention for it determines the system size and the matching of the balance of system components and so if this is not properly done, then the entire system may not perform as intended. Most documented sizing methods tend to be too complicated and require significant computer knowledge in simulation, modeling and even programming. For practical purposes, many designers
and PV installers, especially in developing countries have basic education may not be well equipped for these complicated sizing methods. Furthermore, very few have been professionally trained in PV solar system Sizing and although there are commercially available sizing software’s, they are too expensive for majority of the people and even if available, they are too complicated for them.In actual sizing therefore, most untrained PV technicians use mere estimates that may not be appropriate for the outcome, more often than not is disappointing. We present a simple sizing method that can easily be learned andapplied in a simple calculation, for example in a simple excels sheet formulas for easier sizing of PV systems.The method is recommended for adoption in developing countries for faster dissemination of professional PV services in system sizing.

At present, there is little information on the phylogenetic diversity of microbial species that inhabit the gastrointestinal tracts of wildlife. To increase understanding in this area, we initiated a characterization of the bacterial diversity in the digestive tracts of three wild African ruminant species namely eland (Taurotragus oryx), Thompson's gazelle (Gazella rufifrons) and Grant's gazelle (Gazella granti), together with a domesticated ruminant species, zebu cattle (Bos indicus), and a non-ruminant species, zebra (Equus quagga). Bacterial diversity was analysed by PCR amplification, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences. A total of 252 full-length 16S rDNA sequences averaging 1,500 base pairs (bp) in length, and an additional 27 partial sequences were obtained and subject to phylogenetic analysis. Using a 98% criterion for similarity, all except for one of the sequences were derived from distinct phylotypes. At least 24 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTU's) could be identified, with the majority of these sequences representing hitherto uncharacterized species and genera. The sequences were generally affiliated with four major bacterial phyla, the majority being members of the Firmicutes (low G+C Gram-positives) related to the genera Clostridium and Ruminococcus. By contrast, with earlier studies using 16S rDNA sequences to assess biodiversity in Bos taurus dairy cattle, Gram-negative bacteria in the Bacteroidales (Prevotella-Bacteroides group) were poorly represented. The lack of redundancy in the 16S rDNA dataset from the five African ungulate species, and the presence of novel sequences not previously described from the gastrointestinal tract of any animal species, highlights the level of diversity that exists in these ecosystems and raises the question as to the functional role of these species in the gastrointestinal tract.

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Background: Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) are common pathogens associated with diseases affecting the respiratory tract, gastro intestinal tract as well as various organs like the liver, kidney and the brain. Currently there are 60 human adenovirus serotypes classified into 7 species A to G on the basis of serology, genome sequencing and phylogenomics. HAdV species B, C and E are mainly implicated in respiratory tract infections whereas the other species are associated with gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and ocular infections. Globally, the respiratory HAdV species play a significant role in pediatric infections accounting for 10% of overall respiratory illnesses and 5%–11% of pneumonia cases. However the disease burden due to respiratory adenoviruses in Kenya is not well studied; there is limited data on the respiratory human adenovirus species and serotypes circulating in the country.Objective: The aim of this study was to characterize respiratory human adenoviruses using serological and molecular approaches. Specifically the study sought to determine the species and serotypes of HAdVs that were associated with pediatrics respiratory infections in New Nyanza Provincial General Hospital from June 2010 to June 2012.Methods: Respiratory human adenoviruses isolated from patient’s samples in a period of two years were characterized using serological and molecular approaches. Virus isolates in Hep-2 cell cultures were tested with specific fluorescent antibodies to confirm the presence of Human adenovirus. The loop-2 fragment of the hexon gene was PCR amplified and then sequenced using the Sanger method.Results: Phylogenomics analysis of the sequences showed that during the study period, respiratory HAdV species B and C were associated with respiratory infections accounting for approximately 1% of the overall respiratory viruses. There were no cases of infections caused by respiratory HAdV E implying that this species was not in circulation during the study period. HAdV C was the predominant species accounting for 68.75% of the reported cases with serotype distribution as HAdV C1-25%, HAdV C2-25%, HAdV C5-6.25%, and HAdV C6-12.5%. HAdV B serotype 7 was the most prevalent serotype at 31.25%. Analysis of selection pressure of the sequences revealed that HAdV C5 and HAdV B7 were under positive selection pressure indicating that these viruses are undergoing an evolutionary process which signifies instability in their genomes. Conclusions: Characterization of respiratory human adenoviruses that circulated at New Nyanza Provincial General hospital during the study period revealed that species B and C were present but not E. There was significant genetic variation in the hexon gene of the HAdVs seen at this site compared to those from other parts of the world implying continuing evolution of respiratory HAdVs. To gain a complete understanding of this evolutionary process, whole genome sequencing of these viruses is called for in order to determine genetic stability and uniqueness of these viruses.

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Health status based on lifestyle-related disease is a concern in many developing countries, including Kenya. Factors related to such disease conditions, are important in ensuring economic sustainability in future. Currently there is limited research in this area. The main objective of this study was to determine the relationship between physical activity patterns, dietary intake and health status of lecturers at the University of Nairobi. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey design. Proportionate and simple random sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 120 lecturers as study participants. Data collection included the use of a questionnaire with a physical activity checklist based on 7-day recall, 24-hour food recall, anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, and also diabetes-related questions. Descriptive statistics mainly means, percentages and correlations were used to analyze data. Inferences were made using chi-square statistics, which revealed a significant relationship between health status and physical activity (χ2 =27.54, N=118 p<0.05) and that lecturers who had at least one of the health problems consumed averagely higher amounts of proteins, fat, carbohydrates and kilocalories compared those without any of the health problems. In conclusion, results indicated that the health status of lecturers tended to be more contingent upon physical activity patterns than dietary intake

Oyieke H.A. and Misra A.K:

A simple gas chromatographic assay utilising alkali flame ionisation detection is described for the estimation of cyclophosphamide as its trifluoroacetate derivative from plasma. Examination of five patients following intravenous cyclophosphamide gave values of 8.9 h (SD 2.7) for the half-life and 0.061 liters/h/kg (SD 0.011) for whole-body clearance of the drug.

The suitability for use in the canning industry of eight new dry bean varieties, selected from 150 new advanced drought tolerant dry bean lines was studied. Physical attributes including seed size, dimensions, hundred seed mass, bulk density, water uptake, volume increase and leaching characteristics on soaking were evaluated. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in seed dimensions, hundred seed mass and bulk density. DSS 11-04 (14.67 mm), DRM 11-14 (13.32 mm) and DPC 11-05 (12.84 mm) were highest in seed length. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in maximum soaking rate (Vmax), time at which Vmax occurred, water uptake at which Vmax occurred, final water uptake (UF) and time taken to reach UF. However, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) in volume change. The rate of water uptake was highest in DNB 11-10 (24.00%/h) followed by Kenya Early (19.33%/h) and DSR 11-01 (18.33%/h). The extent of final water uptake was highest in DSS 11-04 (122.0%), DRM 11-14 (118.0%) and DRK 11-12 (113.3%). No significant differences (p>0.05) among varieties were observed in maximum leaching rate (Vlmax) and the time taken to reach final electrical conductivity (tECF) the measure of leaching characteristics. Significant differences (p = 0.05) were observed in time at which Vlmax occurred, electrical conductivity at which Vlmax occurred and final electrical conductivity (ECF). The extent of leaching was highest in DNB 11-10, Mex 142 and DMC 11-13 at 1.00, 0.97 and 0.93 deciSiemen/metre, respectively. All the genotypes DNB 11-10, DSS 11-04, DRK 11-12, DRM 11-14, DPC 11-05, DMC 11-13, DSR 11-01 and Kenya Early are comparable to the control Mexican 142 and are suitable for further use in the canning process according to the results of these physical tests.

Asiatic acid (AA) is a pentacyclic triterpene found in Centella asiatica. In the present study, the mechanism of anticancer effect of AA on skin cancer was investigated. AA decreased viability and induced apoptosis in human melanoma SK-MEL-2 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. AA also markedly increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and enhanced the expression of Bax but not Bcl-2 protein in the cells. In addition, AA-induced activation of caspase-3 activity in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment with Trolox, an antioxidant, significantly blocked the induction of Bax and activation of caspase-3 in AA-treated cells. Furthermore, Ac-DEVD-CHO, a specific caspase-3 inhibitor, and Trolox prevented the AA-induced apoptosis. AA did not elevate p53 nuclear protein levels that are present in a mutant form in SK-MEL-2 cells. These results suggest that AA-induced apoptosis may be mediated through generation of ROS, alteration of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and activation of caspase-3, but p53-independent. These results further suggest that AA may be a good candidate for the therapeutic intervention of human skin cancer.

Introduction The Centre for Open and Distance Learning has been established to facilitate the Internal Faculties in launching and managing their programmes using distance mode with a view to increasing access to university education and provide equity in higher education to the learners all over the country. Operational Strategies The operational strategies that have been set up involve collaborative arrangements between the CODL and the Internal Faculties in the development of Study Materials and Learner support Services for off-campus students. The professional in open and distance learning are availed by the Centre to serve the Faculties as trainers while the Faculties provide academic expertise who are facilitated through participatory methods involving application of knowledge, skills and strategies to develop study materials in their respective subjects. Focus The Centre is currently working with Faculties of Science, Commerce and Arts. The Material development process involves training, writing, reviewing and editing followed by conversion to e-content and audio modes. Conclusion These collaborative arrangements will increase access to higher education make significant contribution in the realization of educational Millennium Goals in Kenya where only 20% of all those who qualify obtain admission in the public universities.

Differentiation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclic (midgut) forms is an important first step in the establishment of an infection within the tsetse fly. This complex process is mediated by a wide variety of factors, including those associated with the vector itself, the trypanosomes and the bloodmeal. As part of an on-going project in our laboratory, we recently isolated and characterized a bloodmeal-induced molecule with both lectin and trypsin activities from midguts of the tsetse fly, Glossina longipennis [Osir, E.O., Abubakar, L., Imbuga, M.O., 1995. Purification and characterization of a midgut lectin-trypsin complex from the tsetse fly, Glossina longipennis. Parasitol. Res. 81, 276-281]. The protein (lectin-trypsin complex) was found to be capable of stimulating differentiation of bloodstream trypanosomes in vitro. Using polyclonal antibodies to the complex, we screened a G. fuscipes fuscipes cDNA midgut expression library and identified a putative proteolytic lectin gene. The cDNA encodes a putative mature polypeptide with 274 amino acids (designated Glossina proteolytic lectin, Gpl). The deduced amino acid sequence includes a hydrophobic signal peptide and a highly conserved N-terminal sequence motif. The typical features of serine protease trypsin family of proteins found in the sequence include the His/Asp/Ser active site triad with the conserved residues surrounding it, three pairs of cysteine residues for disulfide bridges and an aspartate residue at the specificity pocket. Expression of the gene in a bacterial expression system yielded a protein (M(r) approximately 32,500). The recombinant protein (Gpl) bound d(+) glucosamine and agglutinated bloodstream-form trypanosomes and rabbit red blood cells. In addition, the protein was found to be capable of inducing transformation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclic forms in vitro. Antibodies raised against the recombinant protein showed cross-reactivity with the alpha subunit of the lectin-trypsin complex. These results support our earlier hypothesis that this molecule is involved in the establishment of trypanosome infections in tsetse flies.

Differentiation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclic (midgut) forms is an important first step in the establishment of an infection within the tsetse fly. This complex process is mediated by a wide variety of factors, including those associated with the vector itself, the trypanosomes and the bloodmeal. As part of an on-going project in our laboratory, we recently isolated and characterized a bloodmeal-induced molecule with both lectin and trypsin activities from midguts of the tsetse fly, Glossina longipennis [Osir, E.O., Abubakar, L., Imbuga, M.O., 1995. Purification and characterization of a midgut lectin-trypsin complex from the tsetse fly, Glossina longipennis. Parasitol. Res. 81, 276-281]. The protein (lectin-trypsin complex) was found to be capable of stimulating differentiation of bloodstream trypanosomes in vitro. Using polyclonal antibodies to the complex, we screened a G. fuscipes fuscipes cDNA midgut expression library and identified a putative proteolytic lectin gene. The cDNA encodes a putative mature polypeptide with 274 amino acids (designated Glossina proteolytic lectin, Gpl). The deduced amino acid sequence includes a hydrophobic signal peptide and a highly conserved N-terminal sequence motif. The typical features of serine protease trypsin family of proteins found in the sequence include the His/Asp/Ser active site triad with the conserved residues surrounding it, three pairs of cysteine residues for disulfide bridges and an aspartate residue at the specificity pocket. Expression of the gene in a bacterial expression system yielded a protein (M(r) approximately 32,500). The recombinant protein (Gpl) bound d(+) glucosamine and agglutinated bloodstream-form trypanosomes and rabbit red blood cells. In addition, the protein was found to be capable of inducing transformation of bloodstream-form trypanosomes into procyclic forms in vitro. Antibodies raised against the recombinant protein showed cross-reactivity with the alpha subunit of the lectin-trypsin complex. These results support our earlier hypothesis that this molecule is involved in the establishment of trypanosome infections in tsetse flies.

This paper investigates the possibilities of applying emerging management theories and techniques to constitutionally created offices in Kenya and East African region. The benefits from application of these theories, particularly in the judicial services are highlighted.

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Twenty variceal banding sessions were performed in eight patients between February 1995 and September 1996. A total of 69 rings were used to band the varices and at each session between two to six rings were used. Two of the eight had active bleeding and both underwent variceal banding to successfully arrest their bleeding as inpatients. Sixteen other variceal banding sessions were performed on an outpatient basis to obliterate their varices. Four of the eight patients had had sclerotherapy before and varices were still present. No acute or long term complications were noted. In one patient, variceal banding could not be performed as he developed stridor upon placement of the overtube. All the patients had advanced varices (Grade III or IV) and extended for more than 15 cms in the oesophagus. Endoscopic variceal obliteration remains the treatment of choice for patients with portal hypertension with variceal bleeding. Variceal banding is associated with a superior outcome when compared with sclerotherapy; the variceal kill time is shorter, infective complications less, rebleeding occurs less commonly and transfusion requirements are lower.

Twenty one major supermarkets and ten independent green grocers in the city of Nairobi were surveyed for types of vegetable amaranths sold and their post harvest handling. The nutrient composition of the vegetables was also analyzed. In addition, information on three other traditional leafy vegetables (TLVs) namely, Cleome gynandra, Solanum nigrum and Vigna unguiculata was obtained. All the vegetables were sold in bundles of average weight 0.45kg. The edible fraction per bundle averaged 38.9%. Chemical analyses showed that vegetable amaranth had a moisture content of 85.5%, therefore a dry matter content of 14.5%. Expressed on dry matter basis, the mean total ash content was 19.2%, crude protein content 26.1% and the crude fiber content 14.7%. The mean ascorbic acid content was 627mg/100g, zinc content 5.5mg/100g and iron content 18mg/100g. The men nitrate content was 732.5mg/100g, total oxalates 5830mg/100g and soluble oxalates 3650mg/100g, while the lead content averaged 1.03mg/100g. The study concludes that vegetable amaranth has potential as popular vegetable in the diets of Kenyans to significantly contribute to provision of micronutrients, particularly iron and zinc.

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Carrier materials are an important compo¬nent of legume inoculants, both in protect¬ing and applying the rhizobia. We have measured selected physico-chemical prop¬erties, initial microbial populations (bacte¬ria, actinomycetes and fungi) and survival of rhizobia introduced to peat, vermiculite and Muhoroni filtermud. Peat and vermi¬culite were collected from Ondiri and Kajiado respectively. Both sources are readily accessible from Nairobi, the loca¬tion of the MIRCEN legume inoculant pro¬duction facility. Peat was acidic while filtermud and vermi¬culite were close to pH 7.0. Filtermud and peat recorded high carbon while vermi¬culite contained low level of nitrogen as compared to the other two carriers. The original microbial populations in peat and filtermud were approximately lOa-fold greater than in vermiculite. Peat and filter¬mud supported the rhizobial densities of upto 108g-1 for six months which was the duration of the experiment. The results indicate that Ondiri peat would be a suit¬able substitute for rhizobia inoculant pro¬duction, having properties which compare favourably to the filtermud.

This is a generalization after my work on the projective space of dimension 4 to n.

PMID: 614126 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Wild fruits contribute significantly to food security, thus becoming an important global discussion. This study evaluated the physicochemical and nutritional properties of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels fruits from two microclimates in Kenya as essential contributors to the human diet. Analysis was done using standard methodologies including the use of inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrometer for elemental analysis and high-pressure liquid chromatography for the determination of Vitamin C. The T-test showed significant differences in the fruit breadth, pH, total ash, sodium, calcium, manganese, copper, and zinc. The Pearson correlation matrix showed a small positive association between total soluble solids and titratable acidity with altitude, a medium positive correlation with rainfall, and a strong positive correlation between sunshine and skin colour intensity. Larger fruits contained substantial amounts of protein and crude fiber with a significant increase in energy values in fruits with high crude fat and carbohydrates, all correlating positively with the microclimate conditions; altitude, and rainfall. This study exemplifies the potential of Syzygium cumini as an alternative feed supplement to strengthen food security. It provides information on the variation of the physicochemical and nutritional composition of the fruits with climatic conditions, for the industries to employ the best strategies in obtaining marketable products

Magnetic speciation technique was used for the determination of iron species in Nakivubo Channel and Lake Victoria waters. The method consisted of a column of supported Dowex 1-X18, 20–50 US mesh (Cl) surrounded by movable permanent magnets. Dowex was supported by a porous material to permit adequate passage of the eluent through the column. In the presence of an external magnetic field, enhanced capacity for adsorption of iron III was observed. The enhanced capacity is primarily due to the magnetic field produced and ion exchange sorption mechanism. The results show that, most of the Iron in Nakivubo Channel waters is in reduced ferrous form while, in the Lake Victoria waters, it exists in the oxidized ferric form. Physicochemical parameters for the field samples are discussed in this study. Turbidity levels in catchments with substantial vegetation were significantly lower than those without. pH values up to 13 was observed for some of the point source. The physicochemical parameters along Nakivubo Channel waters were relatively higher than the Lake Victoria waters indicating slow increasing pollution load along the Nakivubo Channel.

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Abstract

Aim: Certain edible plant sources contain vegetable oils that have been under-exploited both commercially and in research. This study aimed to determine the physicochemical properties, fatty acids composition, and antioxidant potential of the oil from the seed kernels of Telfairiapedata, which are used as food by the local population of Tharaka-Nithi County in Kenya.

Materials and Methods: Telfairia pedata seeds were collected from farmers in the county of Tharaka-Nithi, Kenya. n-Hexane was used to extract the oil via soxhlet extraction. Standard laboratory protocols were used to characterize the oil’s physicochemical properties, while fatty acids composition and antioxidant potential were characterized using gas chromatography mass spectrometry and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay, respectively.

Results: The seed kernels of Telfairia pedata yielded more than 66% of oil. The oil’s physicochemical properties were found to be within the Food and Agriculture Organization set limits and were as follows; moisture content (0.0592±0.0140%), peroxide value (0.9641±0.2021 meq O2/Kg), iodine value (23.0058±2.2473 gI2/100g) and acid value (0.6352±0.0330 mg KOH/g). Fatty acids such as myristic acid (14:0; 0.11%), palmitoleic acid (16:1n7; 0.13%), palmitic acid (16:0; 34.97%), margaric acid (17:0; 0.10%), linoleic acid (18:2n6; 48.46%), stearic acid (18:0; 15.33%), 10,13-octadecadienoic acid (18:2n5; 0.09%), 18-methylnonadecanoic acid (20:0; 0.68%), and behenic acid (22:0; 0.14%) were found in the oil. The antioxidant potential of the oil expressed in IC50 was found to be 18.05 mg/mL, in relation to that of ascorbic acid 2.406 mg/mL.

Conclusions: Telfairia pedata seed kernel oil can be economical to exploit commercially due to its relatively high yield. The determined properties of Telfairiapedata seed kernel oil present high nutritive value making the oil fit for edible applications.

Adrenal gland weights, stomach mucosal lesions, and morning serum cortisol and prolactin levels were measured in 15 juvenile and adult male African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) that were shot by a hunter, euthanized after 24 hr of captivity, or euthanized after 45 days of captivity and intermittent blood sampling. Hormone levels were measured in seven additional males that had been in captivity for 7 mo. Mean serum cortisol concentrations were significantly lower in free-ranging wild monkeys at the time they were shot than in the monkeys after 1 day in captivity. Cortisol concentrations were significantly higher in wild-caught monkeys on the day after capture than they were in the same animals after 18 and 26 days of captivity. Cortisol concentrations were also significantly higher in the wild-caught monkeys 18 days after capture than in the laboratory-habituated monkeys in captivity for 7 mo. Mean prolactin concentration was significantly lower in the wild-caught monkeys on day 2 after capture, and the levels increased gradually to 45 days in captivity and was highest in monkeys that had been captive for 7 mo.

Altitude exposure is associated with major changes in cardiovascular function. The initial cardiovascular response to altitude is characterized by an increase in cardiac output with tachycardia, no change in stroke volume, whereas blood pressure may temporarily be slightly increased. After a few days of acclimatization, cardiac output returns to normal, but heart rate remains increased, so that stroke volume is decreased. Pulmonary artery pressure increases without change in pulmonary artery wedge pressure. This pattern is essentially unchanged with prolonged or lifelong altitude sojourns. Ventricular function is maintained, with initially increased, then preserved or slightly depressed indices of systolic function, and an altered diastolic filling pattern. Filling pressures of the heart remain unchanged. Exercise in acute as well as in chronic high-altitude exposure is associated with a brisk increase in pulmonary artery pressure. The relationships between workload, cardiac output, and oxygen uptake are preserved in all circumstances, but there is a decrease in maximal oxygen consumption, which is accompanied by a decrease in maximal cardiac output. The decrease in maximal cardiac output is minimal in acute hypoxia but becomes more pronounced with acclimatization. This is not explained by hypovolemia, acid-bases status, increased viscosity on polycythemia, autonomic nervous system changes, or depressed systolic function. Maximal oxygen uptake at high altitudes has been modeled to be determined by the matching of convective and diffusional oxygen transport systems at a lower maximal cardiac output. However, there has been recent suggestion that 10% to 25% of the loss in aerobic exercise capacity at high altitudes can be restored by specific pulmonary vasodilating interventions. Whether this is explained by an improved maximum flow output by an unloaded right ventricle remains to be confirmed. Altitude exposure carries no identified risk of myocardial ischemia in healthy subjects but has to be considered as a potential stress in patients with previous cardiovascular conditions.

Clear, consistent, and user-friendly, the updated edition of Physiology, by renowned physiology instructor Dr. Linda Costanzo, offers a comprehensive overview of core physiologic concepts at the organ system and cellular levels. It presents information in a short, simple, and focused manner, making it an ideal combination textbook and review guide for the USMLE Step 1. You'll grasp all the essential and relevant physiology knowledge you need for absolute success in school and on your exams! Build a strong understanding of the underlying principles of cellular physiology, the autonomic nervous system, and neurophysiology, as well as the cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, acid-base, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and reproductive organ systems.{\textbackslash}Grasp physiology principles with absolute clarity through step-by-step explanations, easy-to-follow diagrams, and a full-color design, in addition to physiology equations and sample problems integrated throughout the text.Effortlessly study important points and reinforce your understanding of physiology with the help of chapter summaries and review questions. Access the entire contents online at Student Consult, including an image bank, 8 animations, "Ask the Author" section, and FAQs.Master the latest physiology concepts with expanded coverage on electrochemical driving forces across cell membranes; the cellular mechanisms in smooth muscle; second messengers (including JAK-Stat pathway); the effects of AII, PGs, NSAIDs on RPF, GFR, filtration fraction, and proximal reabsorption; and local reflexes involved in peristalsis.Reinforce your understanding of key content with the help of additional questions at the end of each chapter offered in an open-ended, problem-solving format.

A simple gas chromatographic assay utilising alkali flame ionisation detection is described for the estimation of cyclophosphamide as its trifluoroacetate derivative from plasma. Examination of five patients following intravenous cyclophosphamide gave values of 8.9 h (SD 2.7) for the half-life and 0.061 liters/h/kg (SD 0.011) for whole-body clearance of the drug.

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Banana and plantain are among the foremost staple food crops providing food and livelihood to over 500 million people in tropical countries. Despite the importance, their production is hampered due to several biotic and abiotic stresses. Plant tissue culture techniques such as somatic embryogenesis and genetic transformation offer a valuable tool for genetic improvement. Identification and quantification of phytochemicals found in banana and plantain are essential in optimizing in vitro activities for crop improvement. Total antioxidants, phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins were quantified in various explants obtained from the field, as well as in vitro plants of banana and plantain cultivars. The result showed genotypic variation in the phytochemicals of selected cultivars. The embryogenic cell suspensions were developed for three farmer-preferred plantain cultivars, Agbagba, Obino l'Ewai, and Orishele, using different MS and B5-based culture media. Both culture media supported the development of friable embryogenic calli (FEC), while MS culture media supported the proliferation of fine cell suspension in liquid culture media. The percentage of FEC generated for Agbagba, Obino l'Ewai, and Orishele were 22 ± 24%, 13 ± 28%, and 9 ± 16%, respectively. Cell suspensions produced from FECs were successfully transformed by -mediated transformation with reporter gene constructs and regenerated into whole plants.

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Herbal medicine is still the mainstay of about 75 - 80% of the whole population, and the major part of
traditional therapy involves the use of plant extracts and their active constituents. Plants were collected,
identified, dried then extracted using hexane, Dichloromethane/methanol and water. Identification assays to
test the presence of various chemical constituents were carried out. The five plants were: Sonchus luxurians,
Ocimum americanum, Bridelia micrantha, Croton megalocarpus and Aloe secundiflora. The
Phytochemical screening of the compounds present in the plant extracts were; alkaloid, glycosides,
Saponins, reducing sugar, Steroid, Flavones and Catecholics. The most common compound in all the plant
extracts was Catecholics. Steroids are used in medicine to treat many diseases. The Plant extracts can be
possible candidates for drug development.
Keywords: Herbal medicine, Phytochemical compounds, Traditional therapy, Plant extracts

The root bark of Teclea trichocarpa exhibited anthelmintic activity against egg hatching and larval development of sheep nematodes (Strongyloides). Three compounds, namely lupeol, melicopicine and 6-methoxytecleanthine were isolated from the dichloromethane-methanol (50:50) extract of the plant. Melicopicine and 6-methoxytecleanthine exhibited mild anthelmintic activity. The present study lends scientific credence to the traditional use of Teclea trichocarpa in the treatment of human helminth infections.

Root and stem extracts of Girardinia diversifolia exhibited varying degrees of activity against Bacillus pumilus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Three compounds namely β-sitosterol, 7-hydroxysitosterol and 3-hydroxystigmast-5-en-7-one, were isolated from the petroleum ether root extract. The present study gives scientific credence to the traditional use of Girardinia diversifolia in the management of microbial infections.

The leaves, stem and roots of Clematis brachiata Thunberg
(Ranunculaceae) tested positive for anthraquinones, alkaloids,
saponins, coumarins, sterols, carotenoids and flavanoids and
cardenolides. Only the stem and leaves had tannins. The root had the
highest amounts of alkaloids and anthraquinones
The stem Soxhlet methanol extract yielded 13.2 mg (0.029 % of the
dried stem powder) of quercetrin (3-0-beta-L- rhamnosyl, 3', 4', 5, 7
tetrahydroxyl flavone). In addition the extract yielded 6400 mg
(1.3 % of dried stem powder) of a precipitate, FAO-FRS. It was
composed of a mixture of non-aromatic compounds.
The roots yielded 170 mg (0.068 % of dried root powder) of a nonaromatic
unsaturated lactone.
The Soxhlet methanol extracts of the leaves and stem had very good
activity against brine shrimps (LDso66.5 ug/ml and 365.6 ug/ml
respectively). An ethyl acetate ffaction of the stem Soxhlet extract,
FES, had the greatest activity against the-shrimps (LDso= 23.08
ug/ml).
The cold methanol extract of the root showed good in vitro
antimalarial activity (LDso = 39.9 ug/ml) against highly chloroquine
resistant isolate, Plasmodium falciparum VliS.
The leaf and stem extracts showed low in vitro antimalarial activity.
Quercetrin is known to have in vivo antimalarial activity.
None of the isolates and plant extracts showed significant
antimicrobial activity.
FAO-FRS, the cold methanol extracts of the leaf and stem showed
antinociceptive and local anesthetic effects.
The cold methanol extracts of the leaf, stem and roots caused
relaxation of the isolated rabbit ileum. At low concentrations, FAOFRS
caused relaxation of the isolated rabbit ileum and at high
concentration it had a dose dependent contractile effect.
The traditional use the leaves and stems of C. brachiata Thunb as
analgesics, local anesthetics, antimalarial agents and spasmolytics,
seems tv have sound scientific rationale. The traditional use of the roots for the management of malaria and as a purgative seems to have
scientific rationale.

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Alkaloids, saponins, anthraquinones, glycosides, phenolics, terpenoids and flavonoids distribution in ten medicinal plants belonging to different families were assessed and compared. The medicinal plants investigated were Asparagus racemosus, Clutia abbysinica, Clerodendrum myricoides, Ehretia cymosia, Leucas calostachys, Toddalia asiatica, Rubia cordifolia, Spermacoce princeae,Carrisa edulis
and Ajuga remota. The leaves and roots of the plants were collected from their natural habitat
in Aldai division South Nandi district. All the plant samples were identified at University of Nairobi and confirmed in National Museums of Kenya. The Voucher specimens were deposited in the University Botanic Garden Maseno herbarium. The harvested roots were washed with water and the barks peeled off while still fresh and cut into small portions. The materials were then air –dried under a tree shade at room temperature for one week when possible, but in the sun whenthe humidity was too high. Phytochemical screening was carried out at Centre for Traditional Medicine and Drug Research (CTMDR) KEMRI Nairobi according to Harborne, (1984 & 1973. All plants were found to contain alkaloids, terpernoids , saponins and flavonoids except for the absence of saponins in root extracts of
R. cordifolia and C.myricoides and flavonoids in leave extracts of L. calostachys and A. remota.
The significance of the plants in traditional medicine and the importance of the distribution of these constituents were discussed with respect to the role of these plants in ethnomedicine in South Nandi District.

11 th NAPRECA Symposium Book of Proceedings, Antananarivo, Madagascar Pages 9-19 Midiwo et al. 9 Phytochemical Evaluation of So me Kenyan Medicinal Plants J. Ogweno Midiwo, A. Yenesew, B.F. Juma Kerubo L Omosa, Irene L Omosa, Daniel Mutisya. Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi, P.o. Box 30197, Nairobi. Kenya. E-mail: jmidiwo@uonbi.ac.ke Abstract There are more than 1200 described medicinal pl ants in Kenya from a flora of approximately 10,000 members. Strong cross-medical informati on from the 42 ethnic groups points to the high potential of some of these species. The Myrsinaceae are well established ethno-anthel mintics and anti-bacterials. They are harbingers of long alkyl side chain benzoquinones which clearly have a protective function from their histochemical disposition. The main benzoqui none in the sub-family Myrsinodae is embelin while for the Maesodae it is maesaquinone together with its 5-acetyl derivative; the distribution of these benzoquinones by their alkyl side chain le ngth or the presence / absence of 6-methyl group is in accord with morphological sub-fam ily de-limitation. The benzoquinones showed anti- feedant, anti-microbial, phytotoxic, acaricidal, in secticidal and nematicidal activity. Many other benzoquinones of medium and mi nor concentration were also isolated and characterised. Some plants belonging to the Polygonaceae which are widely used as ethno-anthelmintics have been studied. The common anthelmintic anthraquinones were obtained from all five Rumex species while the naphthalenic acetogenin deriva tive, nepodin was more selectively distributed. The leaf of Polygonum senegalense is upto 17% surface exudate; about thirteen non polar flavonoid derivatives (chalcones, di hydrochalcones, flavanones and a flavone) have been isolated from it. From the internal aerial tissues of this plant, the major flavonoids were common flavonoids, quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin a nd their glycosides. The only unique compound isolated from this plant was 2'-glucosy l-6'-hydroxy-4'-methoxychalcone whose aglycone, uvangolatin is part of the exuda te mixture. Other leaf exuda te plants studied included the stomach-ache medicine, Psiadia punctulata (Compositae) from which novel methylated flavonoids, kaurene and trachyloba n diterpenes have been found.

Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst) is a shrub (or tree) and grows in woodland, wooded grassland and rocky mountain slopes from Ethiopia southwards to Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. It is widespread in Kenya and has many traditional uses. Roots are boiled and the soup used to treat rheumatism. Roots are pounded, soaked in water and the macerate given to children with diarrhea. Its stems and roots are used as an anthelmintic and to treat syphilis. It is also used to treat heart problems, nausea in pregnant women, headaches, haemorrhoids, dyspepsia, regulate the menses, to hasten the onset of labour and as an abortifacient. Dried entire plant is used in South Africa for treatment of diarrhea and in Tanzania for intestinal upset and to rid evil effects of witchcraft. It is also used to treat abdominal pains, intestinal ulceration, headaches, haemorrhage and as a tonic. Phytochemical studies were carried out on the methanol, chloroform, hot water and cold water extracts of Dombeya rotundifolia. All the extracts contained cardiac glycosides. The methanol, hot water and could water extracts contained saponins. None of the extracts contained alkaloids and anthraquinones. Fractionation of the chloroform extract yielded two compounds which were identified as lupeol and -sitosterol by spectroscopic methods. The extracts delayed the normal hatching of strongyle eggs while killing the eggs at high concentration. Many of the un-hatched eggs below the concentration of 5000 g/ml had developed and the larvae could be seen inside the shell but some were dead showing that the extracts retarded development of the eggs. The calculated LD50 for egg hatch assay was 2570 g/ml, 500.9 g/ml, 2709.4 g/ml and 1762.9 g/ml for the hot water, cold water, methanol and chloroform extracts, respectively. The calculated LD50 for the larvae mortality assay was 635.9 g/ml, 657.0 g/ml, 96.9 g/ml and 4195 g/ml for the hot water, cold water, methanol and chloroform extracts, respectively. The extracts killed the hatched larvae at high concentrations. The calculated LD50 for the larvae development assay was 1689.6 g/ml, 765.4 g/ml, 4909.8 g/ml and 3062 g/ml for the hot water, cold water, methanol and chloroform extracts, respectively. This showed that the extracts prevented the normal development of the larvae from Larvae1 to Larvae3 (adult stage). The most active extract in egg hatch and larvae development assay was the cold water extract, while methanol extract was the most active in larvae mortality assay. The hot water and could water extracts relaxed the isolated rabbit ileum, an effect similar to that of adrenaline, supporting the use of this plant to treat diarrhea. The methanol and chloroform extracts had no effects on the isolated rabbit ileum up to a dose of 40 mg (2 mg/ml). No extract had activity on guinea pig ileum. All the extracts had broncho-constrictive effect on guinea pig trachea. The chloroform extract had a marked negative chlorotropic and inotropic effects on the isolated rabbit heart. The methanol and the water extracts had no effects on the heart up to a dose of 20 mg. Starting with a tissue bath concentration of 0.5 mg/ml, both methanol and hot water extracts caused contraction of isolated rat uterus with activity at a concentration of 2 mg/ml being comparable to the effect of oxytocin 0.1 i.u/ml and acetylcholine 0.5 g/ml. Both chloroform and cold water extracts had no noticeable effect on the uterus upto a dose of 2 mg/ml. The oxytocin-like contractions of isolated rat uterus caused by methanol and hot water extracts supports the use of this plant decoction as an abortifacient. The extracts had high activity against Artemia salina showing they may have good pestcidal and cytotoxic activity. The LD50 of methanol, chloroform, hot water and cold water extracts were 470.7, 323.3, 30.2 and 38.5 g/ml, respectively. The LD50 of lupeol and -sitosterol was 116.2 and 95.9 g/ml, respectively. In this work, the isolation of any compound from Dombeya rotundifolia is reported for the first time. The compounds lupeol and -sitosterol were isolated from the stem bark. The present work shows there is a scientific basis for the traditional use of the plant Dombeya rotundifolia as anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal and abortifacient.

Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst) is a shrub (or tree) and grows in woodland, wooded grassland and rocky mountain slopes from Ethiopia southwards to Kwazulu Natal, South Africa. It is widespread in Kenya and has many traditional uses. Roots are boiled and the soup used to treat rheumatism. Roots are pounded, soaked in water and the macerate given to children with diarrhea. Its stems and roots are used as an anthelmintic and to treat syphilis. It is also used to treat heart problems, nausea in pregnant women, headaches, haemorrhoids, dyspepsia, regulate the menses, to hasten the onset of labour and as an abortifacient. Dried entire plant is used in South Africa for treatment of diarrhea and in Tanzania for intestinal upset and to rid evil effects of witchcraft. It is also used to treat abdominal pains, intestinal ulceration, headaches, haemorrhage and as a tonic. Phytochemical studies were carried out on the methanol, chloroform, hot water and cold water extracts of Dombeya rotundifolia. All the extracts contained cardiac glycosides. The methanol, hot water and could water extracts contained saponins. None of the extracts contained alkaloids and anthraquinones. Fractionation of the chloroform extract yielded two compounds which were identified as lupeol and -sitosterol by spectroscopic methods. The extracts delayed the normal hatching of strongyle eggs while killing the eggs at high concentration. Many of the un-hatched eggs below the concentration of 5000 g/ml had developed and the larvae could be seen inside the shell but some were dead showing that the extracts retarded development of the eggs. The calculated LD50 for egg hatch assay was 2570 g/ml, 500.9 g/ml, 2709.4 g/ml and 1762.9 g/ml for the hot water, cold water, methanol and chloroform extracts, respectively. The calculated LD50 for the larvae mortality assay was 635.9 g/ml, 657.0 g/ml, 96.9 g/ml and 4195 g/ml for the hot water, cold water, methanol and chloroform extracts, respectively. The extracts killed the hatched larvae at high concentrations. The calculated LD50 for the larvae development assay was 1689.6 g/ml, 765.4 g/ml, 4909.8 g/ml and 3062 g/ml for the hot water, cold water, methanol and chloroform extracts, respectively. This showed that the extracts prevented the normal development of the larvae from Larvae1 to Larvae3 (adult stage). The most active extract in egg hatch and larvae development assay was the cold water extract, while methanol extract was the most active in larvae mortality assay. The hot water and could water extracts relaxed the isolated rabbit ileum, an effect similar to that of adrenaline, supporting the use of this plant to treat diarrhea. The methanol and chloroform extracts had no effects on the isolated rabbit ileum up to a dose of 40 mg (2 mg/ml). No extract had activity on guinea pig ileum. All the extracts had broncho-constrictive effect on guinea pig trachea. The chloroform extract had a marked negative chlorotropic and inotropic effects on the isolated rabbit heart. The methanol and the water extracts had no effects on the heart up to a dose of 20 mg. Starting with a tissue bath concentration of 0.5 mg/ml, both methanol and hot water extracts caused contraction of isolated rat uterus with activity at a concentration of 2 mg/ml being comparable to the effect of oxytocin 0.1 i.u/ml and acetylcholine 0.5 g/ml. Both chloroform and cold water extracts had no noticeable effect on the uterus upto a dose of 2 mg/ml. The oxytocin-like contractions of isolated rat uterus caused by methanol and hot water extracts supports the use of this plant decoction as an abortifacient. The extracts had high activity against Artemia salina showing they may have good pestcidal and cytotoxic activity. The LD50 of methanol, chloroform, hot water and cold water extracts were 470.7, 323.3, 30.2 and 38.5 g/ml, respectively. The LD50 of lupeol and -sitosterol was 116.2 and 95.9 g/ml, respectively. In this work, the isolation of any compound from Dombeya rotundifolia is reported for the first time. The compounds lupeol and -sitosterol were isolated from the stem bark. The present work shows there is a scientific basis for the traditional use of the plant Dombeya rotundifolia as anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal and abortifacient.

Description
The chemistry of five African Croton taxa, Croton oligandrus Pierre ex Hutch., Croton megalocarpus Hutch., Croton menyharthii Pax, Croton rivularis Mull.Arg. and Croton megalobotrys Mull.Arg. is described. The undescribed ent-19-hydroxyisopimara-8(9),15-dien-7-one and ent-isopimara-7(8),15-dien-16,19-diol were isolated from the fruits of C. oligandrus, ent-isopimara-7(8),15-dien-19-yl octadecanoate was obtained from both the fruits and leaves, and ent-19-hydroxyisopimara-8(9),15-dien-7-one was isolated from the leaves of this species. The undescribed 3,4,15,16-diepoxy-8α-hydroxycleroda-13(16),14-dien-12S,17-olide and (5S,9R,10S)-7,13-ent-abietadien-2-one were isolated from the leaves and roots of C. megalocarpus respectively. Compounds isolated from C. menyharthii, C. rivularis and C. megalobotrys have been reported from other sources. The structures of the compounds were determined using …

Description
Commiphora holtziana gum resins when solvent extracted followed by a combination of chromatographic separation techniques on hexane extract of the Wajir sample, led to the isolation and characterization of a new compound, 11–hydroxy-γ-muurolene 1. In addition, two known compounds,(1E)-2-methoxy-8, 12-

Despite the availability of well established cancer therapies, death from cancer is common and is predicted to rise. There is evidence that natural products play a significant role in cancer therapy and prevention; with considerable number of anticancer agents in use are either natural products or their derivatives. Flavonoids are among classes of natural products gaining a lot of interest as potential anticancer and cancer chemopreventive agents. In this regard, plants from two flavonoid rich genera, Millettia (Millettia oblata ssp. teitensis, Millettia dura and Millettia usaramensis ssp. usaramensis) of the Leguminosae family and Ochna (Ochna holstii and Ochna ovata) of the Ochnaceae family were investigated. Chromatographic (column chromatography on silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, preparative TLC and HPLC) separation of the extracts from the five plants led to the identification of a total of sixty six compounds, out of which ten are new. Four derivatives of the isolated compounds were also prepared. The structural elucidation of the compounds was performed using spectroscopic and spectrometric analyses: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Ultra Violet spectroscopy (UV), Circular Dichroism (CD), X-ray crystallography, Polarimetry and Mass Spectrometry (MS). The crude extract of the leaves of Millettia oblata ssp. teitensis yielded two new isoflavones (316 and 317) and four new structurally related rotenoids (318-321) along with eight known compounds. Similarly, the leaves of Millettia usaramensis ssp. usaramensis led to the identification of five rotenoids, three isoflavones and one triterpene, of which the isoflavone (312) is new. One of the known rotenoid (313) is reported here for the first time from the genus Millettia. The root bark extract of Millettia usaramensis ssp. usaramensis gave thirteen compounds (chalcones, rotenoids, flavanoids and cinnamyl alcohol) of which the chalcone (326) is a new compound. From the roots of Millettia oblata ssp. teitensis, thirteen compounds were identified. Among these, the tetraglycoside isoflavone (306) is a new compound. Similar work on the root bark of Millettia dura yielded six isoflavones, one chalcone and a pterocarpan, named 3-O-prenylmaakiain (303) is new compound. Similarly, investigation of the stem bark and leaves of Ochna holstii yielded dimeric and monomeric flavonoids along with dasycarponin (332) and 2,4-dihydroxyphenylmethyl acetate (335). Furthermore, the root bark of Ochna ovata also gave seven compounds some of which were also obtained from the stem and leaves of Ochna holstii. Four alkaloids (336-339) obtained from root bark of Ochna ovata are reported here for the first time from the family Ochnaceae. This is the first report on the phytochemistry of the two Ochna species. The crude extracts and some of their constituents were evaluated for anticancer activities. The crude extract of the roots of M. oblata ssp. teitensis showed strong activity (4.5 μg/mL) against ER-negative MDB-MB-231 human breast cancer cell-line followed by crude extract of root bark of M. usaramensis ssp usaramensis (11.6 μg/mL). The pure compounds were also found cytotoxic aganist ER-negative MDB-MB-231 human breast cancer cell-line (IC50 10.5-88.1 μg/mL) among which the highest activity was recorded for usararotenoid C (154, 10.5 μg/mL) followed by maximaisoflavone J (325, 11.2 μg/mL). The activity of 154 is almost four times higher than that of epimillettosin (137, 39.7 μg/mL) with the only structural difference between the two is that 154 has a prenyl group at C-8 and a methoxyl group at C-9 while in 137 the prenyl has cyclized into 2,2-dimethylchromene. Similarly, the activity of maximaisoflavone J (325) is almost five times higher than maximaisoflavone B (304, 53.8 vii μg/mL); while the only difference between the two compounds is the replacement of the methoxyl group at C-4' in 325 by a methylenedioxy (C-3'/C-4') in maximaisoflavone B (304). The strong activities observed for the crude extracts; roots of Millettia oblata ssp. teitensis and root bark of Millettia usaramensis ssp. usaramensis could be due to their active component; maximaisoflavone J (325) and usararotenoid C (154), respectively. Some compounds were also evaluated for cytotoxicity against Vero cells (IC50 6.7-67.4 μg/mL). Strong activity was recorded for the dimeric flavonoid, calodenone (253). This compound is ten times more active than the related compound, lophirone A (252), a compound which only differ from 253 by lack of a methoxyl group at C-15. The isolated constituents were also tested in Krebs-2 in vitro for translation inhibitory, but none of the compounds showed translation inhibitory activity. Overall, the investigation of the five plants yielded a wide range of new and known compounds as monomeric and dimeric flavonoids, rotenoids, isoflavonoids, chalcones, alkaloids, triterpene and two simple molecules (331 and 335), some of which showed moderate to low cytotoxicity on the ER-negative MDB-MB-231 human breast cancer cell-line and Vero cells.....

With 500 million deaths globally, and over 90% in Africa, malaria is among the greatest killer diseases on the continent. Deaths due to malaria reach about half a million among children annually. Malaria patients constitute 15% of all hospital admissions, 50% of fever cases and 30% of outpatient consultations. The effect and cost of disease has enormous impact on economic growth and development of African economies. The emergence of drug resistant malaria parasite (plasmodium species) and insecticide resistant Anopheles mosquitoes have accelerated the spread of the disease. Some of the anti-malarials like chloroquine and pyrimethamine, which were used as first line drugs have been discontinued due to high prevalence of resistant parasites. Due to the high costs of malaria vaccine development and production coupled with diminished emphasis on vaccine research by multinational pharmaceutical firms, an efficient vaccine has not been produced for malaria management. However, research continues along these lines with two recent reports of new vaccines, one with 47% protection. Vector control. Therefore, remains the method of choice. Larval control is a preferable approach since the life cycle is terminated before emergence into the disease transmitting adults. Nonetheless, the used of biological control methods like larvivorous plants and fish is not viable. Insecticides resistance is on the increase and some of the effective ones like DDT have been banned due to their adverse effects on the environment, human health and non-target organisms. Thus, control strategies such as the use of phytochemical larvicides need to be investigated and developed. The current research examined the potential larvicidal activity of extracts of Toddalia asiatica and Ekebergia capensis. The extracts were subjected to bioassay guided fractionation and isolation of Larvicidal compounds. The results indicate that some extracts have larvicidal activity up to 19.0 ppm with T. Asiatic showing the highest activity. Several compounds were isolated and characterized from the two plants. Sibiricin from T. Asiatic showed the highest level of Larvicidal activity. Eight pure compounds are being reported for the first time from this study. Their bioactivity and structural elucidation are discussed.

As a response to the worldwide alarm of increased resistance of microbes to readily available antibiotics, the stem bark of Zanthoxylum holstzianum (Rutaceae) with no prior phytochemical report was investigated so as to isolate, and elucidate secondary metabolites with likely antimicrobial activities. The plant material was collected from Diani Veminant forest (coastal province of Kenya), dried at room temperature under shade, pulverised and extracted using acetone. The crude extract was subjected to fractionation and purification using a range of separation techniques including, partitioning, Column Chromatography (CC), Preparative Thin Layer Chromatography (PTLC) and crystallization. The structure of the isolated compounds was determined using a combination of spectroscopic techniques such as UV, MS, and NMR.
In total seven compounds were isolated, of these, three were benzophenanthridine alkaloids dihydrochelerythrine (2), 8-acetonyldihydrochelerythrine (5) and 8oxochelerythrine (7)], one canthin-6-one alkaloid [N-methylflindersine (3)], a flavanone
[hesperidine (1)], a fatty acid [hexadecanoic acid (6)], and an amide (2E,4E)-Nisobutyltetradeca-2,4-dienamide (4)]. This is the first report of the occurrence of (2E,4E)N-isobutyltetradeca-2,4-dienamide (4), hexadecanoic acid (6) and hesperidin (1) from the genus Zanthoxylum. A summary of the isolated compounds is shown in figure 1. The crude extract and isolated compounds were screened against four microbial
pathogens, namely: Escherichia coli NC 35218 (Bacterium), Staphylococcus aureus
ATCC 259213 (Bacterium), Candida albicans SC 5314 (Yeast fungus), and Aspergillus
niger ATCC 16404 (Filamentous fungus) using the disc diffusion technique as
recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2012).
Dihydrochelerythrine (2), N-methylflindersine (3), (2E, 4E)-N-isobutyltetradeca-2,4dienamide (5) and the crude extract, each had minimum inhibition concentration (MIC)
of 6.25 μg/disc against Staphylococcus aureus. The crude had MIC of 62.5 μg/disc
against Candida albicans and the essential oils showed a MIC of 12.5 μg/disc against
both Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans.

Background: Plants continue to play a vital role in their therapeutic value. This is because of the vast secondary metabolites that many of them produce. These natural products have been utilised as single or in combination with other compounds for utilization as source of drugs for many ailments in form of antibacterials, antifungals, antivirals, antihelminthes, and antimalarials among others. Plants evaluated phytochemically in most cases have previous reports on biological activity, ethnomedicinal or traditional medicine usage. However, many other plants with no such previous reports may be as important with variety of natural products with potential significance in pharmaceuticals for drug development. Dierama cupuliflorum is one such plant. The aim of the present study was to investigate the presence of phytochemicals in this plant. Method : The organic solvent extracts from Methanol: Dichloromethane (1:1) along with dry powder/ground portions from corms and aerial parts were screened for the presence of selected phytochemicals using standard chemical procedures. Results: Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, flavanoids, glycosides and anthraquinones. More phytochemicals were detected in corms than in the aerial parts. Conclusion: Although there is no available report on the use of this plant for medicinal purposes, the phytochemical data presented here has demonstrated that this plant has the potential to be used significantly for therapeutic purposes in many health challenges. This study has therefore laid down a good foundation for future studies on this plant whose bioactivity studies are currently underway.