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The controversy that has surrounded herbivory studies in the last few decades prompted our investigation to establish the extent to which herbivore optimisation hypothesis or compensatory growth evidence is real. We used the traditional movable cage method to collect primary productivity data on herbage, functional groups and key individual grass species in various controlled large herbivore treatments in an east African savanna. The herbivore treatments in triplicate blocks included cattle, wild herbivores with and without mega herbivores and combinations of cattle and wild herbivores also with and without mega herbivores. The findings revealed that at herbage level, most grazed treatments (four out of five) had higher productivity than the ungrazed control and three showed grazing optimisation curve at sixth polynomial degree between monthly productivity and grazing intensity (1-g/ng). At functional group level forbs productivity was higher in the ungrazed control than in any of the grazed treatments while at individual grass species level Themeda triandra productivity was higher in all grazed treatments than in ungrazed control. We conclude against presence of herbivore optimisation hypothesis at herbage, functional group and species level because of lack of attributable grazing effect in grazed treatments that matches complex ecological effects in the ungrazed treatment.

Tetracyclines have been among the most widely used antibiotics worldwide. Plasmid-mediated tetracycline resistance among hospital strains of bacteria has continued to rise and of major concern has been the transfer of resistance to pathogenic organisms. Bacteraemia due to hospital acquired S. typhimurium has been a major cause of morbidity at Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH), hence the need to study drug susceptibility pattern of this organism. This study also characterized the tetracycline resistance genes using oligonucleotide probes. Ninety seven S. typhimurium strains isolated from patients at KNH were used. Agar dilution method was used to determine minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Plasmids were isolated from each strain and the different plasmid profiles were grouped by their molecular weights into 6 patterns. Out of 97, 87 (88%) strains were resistant. MIC ranged from 1 microgram/ml to 128 micrograms/ml. Genes encoding for tetracycline resistance were located on plasmids of molecular weights 65 MDa, 5.2 or both. Plasmid-encoded antimicrobial resistance is likely to spread to other pathogenic organisms, reduce our ability to treat the infection and increase the cost and duration of treatment.

Tetracyclines have been among the most widely used antibiotics worldwide. Plasmid-mediated tetracycline resistance among hospital strains of bacteria has continued to rise and of major concern has been the transfer of resistance to pathogenic organisms. Bacteraemia due to hospital acquired S. typhimurium has been a major cause of morbidity at Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH), hence the need to study drug susceptibility pattern of this organism. This study also characterized the tetracycline resistance genes using oligonucleotide probes. Ninety seven S. typhimurium strains isolated from patients at KNH were used. Agar dilution method was used to determine minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Plasmids were isolated from each strain and the different plasmid profiles were grouped by their molecular weights into 6 patterns. Out of 97, 87 (88%) strains were resistant. MIC ranged from 1 microgram/ml to 128 micrograms/ml. Genes encoding for tetracycline resistance were located on plasmids of molecular weights 65 MDa, 5.2 or both. Plasmid-encoded antimicrobial resistance is likely to spread to other pathogenic organisms, reduce our ability to treat the infection and increase the cost and duration of treatment.

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The Luo community of Kenya have traditionally used plants for treatment of various disease conditions,
some of which we now know to be caused by microbial infections. Some of these plants, namely Lannea
stuhlmanii, Carissa edulis, Combretum fragrans, Conyza sumatrensis, Ormocarpum trichocarpum, Sida
cuneifolia, Plumbago zeylanica, and Rhoicissus revoilii, were studied. Their ethanol extracts were
screened for their antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus
and Bacillus pumulus.
Ethanolic root extract of C sumatrensis had good antibacterial activity against E. coli, while extracts of
C fragrans root bark, C edulis root, S. cuneifolia whole plant, R. revoilii tubers and leaf extract of C
sumatrensis in the same solvent had good activity against it. Activity against B. pumulus was observed in
all extracts except those of L. stuhlmanii bark and R. revoilii tubers. Good activity against S. aureus was
observed for C fragrans, S. cuneifolia and L. stuhlmanii.
R. revoihi, L. stuhlmanii, C fragrans and C edulis exhibited good antifungal activity against Candida
albicans.
Combretum fragrans bark extract had the highest overall antimicrobial activity of all the different plant
extracts examined and was subsequently chosen for further studies. All its ethanol, methanol, ethyl
acetate and chloroform extracts were found to have significant antimicrobial activity.
Combretum fragrans bark powder was found to contain saponins, cardiac glycosides, free anthraquinones
(anthracene glycosides), tannins and flavonoids. However, it had no starch nor alkaloids.
The chloroform extract of C fragrans was subjected to column chromatographic separation and
sitosterol (with stigmasterol as a minor compound) was isolated and identified. Sitosterol was shown to
have antifungal activity against C albicans and antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli.
The results of this work would therefore appear to lend support to the traditional use of Lannea
stuhlmanii, Combretum fragrans, Conyza sumatrensis (tineasis), Plumbago zeylanica, and Rhoicissus
revoilii in disease conditions where microbial infections may be a factor. Use of growth enhancers like
Carissa edulis in combination therapy may be justified on the basis of their immune boosting activity.

Title: Assessment of knowledge and attitude on antiretroviral therapy among nursing students. Objective: To assess the knowledge and attitude of final year nursing students at Kenyatta National Hospital. Specific Objectives were to establish the knowledge of nursing students on Anti-retroviral therapy and to determine the attitude of students towards patients who are on Anti-retroviral therapy Method: The study done at Kenyatta National hospital administered questionnaires to 150 students and 138 were found eligible. Data collected was analyzed using STATA. Results: The findings of the study showed that 39.8% of the nursing students had knowledge about Anti-Retroviral drugs; 42% of the students had some ideas while 18% of the students did not have adequate knowledge. Married and older students seemed to have better knowledge on ART compared to young and single Nurses significant at a P-value of 0.033. Attitude towards ART was positive from 34.8% of the students while 65.2% of the nursing students had not expressed their feeling. There was significant association between attitude and sex. Conclusion: This study confirmed lack of adequate knowledge on Antiretroviral therapy among newly qualified nursing students. The study recommended inclusion of HIV/AIDS based units in the basic training of nurses

This was a Survey of Parents' Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of sex education to their own adolescents. The study was conducted between January and March in three divisions of Kiambaa Division of Kiambu District, Central Province of Kenya. This study area is located about 20 km from the city of Nairobi. The study population were parents with at least one child in adolescence. Depending on availability either one or both parents were included in the study. The study instrument was structured, mainly pre-coded questionnaire. The data was obtained through personal interviews conducted from house La ho u sc . The sample population was made up of 729 parents, 70.4% of whom were females. The survey found that 46.3% of parents gave sex education to their own adolescents, majority of them giving it to those of their sex only. Parents gave their adolescents sex education from a mean age (of the adolescent) of 10.33 years (SD=3.51) and the practice was associated with Parents Social, Economic and Demographic factors. 'Of these factors, knowledge that own adolescents received sex education from sources other than the parent had highest odds ratio 10R=4.l8). Age of the parent was the only other factor with odds for the practice (OR=.l.03 ). The level of sex education given to adolescents was higher for girls than for boys. The level of practice to boys was associated with age and socio-economic status (SES) inde~ of the parent. Knowledge of sex education among parents was high and associated with a parents' sex and SES index. Males scored signi ficantly higher than females and parents of Jow SES scored significantly higher than those of high SES index. The attitude to sex education was positive, with nearly all parents feeling that sex education for adolescents was appropriate and that it should be given by own parents, starting from a mean age of 10.61 years (SD=2. 84) and that it should include contraceptive education. The study recommended further studies on parents to understand why the level of practice is unmatched with the high levels of knowledge and attitude and to determine why those parents who know that their adolescents receive sex education from other sources are more likely to give sex education to their adolescents than those who did not. 'Other recommendations were: a study to assess the feasibility of using PTA' s to impart sex education to adolescents in schools, beginning Family Life education in primary schools at standard four (corresponding to age .10-11 years),and establishing of community based centres for sex education counselling for parents with adolescents and adolescents out of school.

The present studies were designed and carried out to determine if hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is involved in the regulation of erythropoietin (Epo) gene expression and stimulation of Epo production in the hepatocellular (Hep 3B) cells. Hep 3B cells were incubated with varying concentrations of H2O2 for periods of 6 hours or 24 hours. In other experiments Hep 3B cells were incubated for 24 hours with or without increasing concentrations of catalase and in the presence of H2O2. Culture medium levels of Epo were determined and quantitation of Epo mRNA was also made. The results indicate that H2O2 increases the levels of Epo mRNA and Epo hormone production in Hep 3B cells, and that catalase, the specific scavenger of hydrogen peroxide, inhibits Epo production in these cells. Based on these findings, it is concluded that H2O2 takes part in the signal transduction mechanisms in Epo production. It is recommended that further studies be undertaken to find out the source of the hydrogen peroxide in the hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

No abstract available

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Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

No abstract available

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Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

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Analysis of 355 cases with fractures of the mandible indicated that 74.9% of the cases were due to interpersonal violence and 13.8% were caused by road traffic accidents. The men to women ratio was 8.4:1 and 75.5% of the fracture cases had single fractures while 24.5% had multiple fractures. In cases with a single fracture, the most commonly involved mandibular site was the body (42.2%). The angle of mandible was most frequently fractured (50.5%) in cases with multiple fractures.

Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

Journal of the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Kenya. (pages 13-15)

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The serum antibody response in golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) infected with the intestinal trematode Echinostoma caproni was examined with ELISA, SDS-PAGE and Western blot, and IFAT techniques. All methods showed that the hamsters responded slowly but developed a clear positive humoral response to the infection. In most hamsters, an antibody response to infection could not be detected earlier than 11-13 weeks after infection with 6 or 25 metacercariae, and responses were weak when compared to previous results from mice infected with the same parasite. IFAT with positive hamster sera on live juvenile E. caproni showed only fluorescence at the posterior tip, which is a different pattern from that seen using from infected mice, indicating a different response to antigens on the juvenile parasites by these two hosts. The results are discussed in relation to the limited selfcure and development of resistance which is observed in golden hamsters infected with E. caproni.

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Joint exhibition of paintings and sculptures

This paper reports the detailed results of a study of the impact of the Health Workers for Change (HWFC) workshop series on clients' perceptions of health services, relationships within the health centre and relations between the health facility and the district health system. The study was carried out in three stages: baseline, intervention and evaluation over a period of 20 months. Data, both qualitative and quantitative, were collected at three levels: client, facility and system. Results indicate that relations between health workers and clients improved a great deal after the intervention while those between the facility and the system remained to a large extent unchanged. The paper concludes that, with external support and help, especially from the health system level, health workers can work towards improving health services and their job satisfaction, which can lead to better health worker-client relations.

Joint exhibition of paintings and sculptures

This paper reports the detailed results of a study of the impact of the Health Workers for Change (HWFC) workshop series on clients' perceptions of health services, relationships within the health centre and relations between the health facility and the district health system. The study was carried out in three stages: baseline, intervention and evaluation over a period of 20 months. Data, both qualitative and quantitative, were collected at three levels: client, facility and system. Results indicate that relations between health workers and clients improved a great deal after the intervention while those between the facility and the system remained to a large extent unchanged. The paper concludes that, with external support and help, especially from the health system level, health workers can work towards improving health services and their job satisfaction, which can lead to better health worker-client relations.

Asiatic acid (AA) is a pentacyclic triterpene found in Centella asiatica. In the present study, the mechanism of anticancer effect of AA on skin cancer was investigated. AA decreased viability and induced apoptosis in human melanoma SK-MEL-2 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. AA also markedly increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and enhanced the expression of Bax but not Bcl-2 protein in the cells. In addition, AA-induced activation of caspase-3 activity in a dose-dependent manner. Pretreatment with Trolox, an antioxidant, significantly blocked the induction of Bax and activation of caspase-3 in AA-treated cells. Furthermore, Ac-DEVD-CHO, a specific caspase-3 inhibitor, and Trolox prevented the AA-induced apoptosis. AA did not elevate p53 nuclear protein levels that are present in a mutant form in SK-MEL-2 cells. These results suggest that AA-induced apoptosis may be mediated through generation of ROS, alteration of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and activation of caspase-3, but p53-independent. These results further suggest that AA may be a good candidate for the therapeutic intervention of human skin cancer.

Description
Adsorption of crystal violet (CV) dye from aqueous solution using dried bark powder of mangrove species Rhizophora mucronata was studied. Characterization of adsorbent was done using FTIR and SEM. Batch experiment was carried out to examine the viability of using mangrove bark for adsorption of CV dye from aqueous solutions under different process conditions. The result revealed that removal of CV increased with contact time, adsorbent dose, initial dye concentration and decreased with increased particle size and ionic strength. pH 7 was the optimum pH for CV dye removal. The adsorption equilibrium for CV dye by Rhizophora mucronata stem-bark was attained within 60 min with removal efficacy of up to 99.8%. Pseudo-second-order kinetic model was best used to describe sorption kinetics while Freundlich isotherm model was appropriate for describing adsorption isotherm. The results demonstrated …

The platinum drug, cisplatin, is considered as among the most successful medications in cancer treatment. However, due to its inherent toxicity and resistance limitations, research into other metal-based non-platinum anticancer medications with diverse mechanisms of action remains an active field. In this regard, copper complexes feature among non-platinum compounds which have shown promising potential as effective anticancer drugs. Moreover, the interesting discovery that cancer cells can alter their copper homeostatic processes to develop resistance to platinum-based treatments leads to sugges- tions that some copper compounds can indeed re-sensitize cancer cells to these drugs. In this work, we review copper and copper complexes bearing dithiocarbamate ligands which have shown promising results as anticancer agents. Dithiocarbamate ligands act as effective ionophores to convey the com- plexes of interest into cells thereby influencing the metal homeostatic balance and inducing apoptosis through various mechanisms. We focus on copper homeostasis in mammalian cells and on our current understanding of copper dysregulation in cancer and recent therapeutic breakthroughs using copper coordination complexes as anticancer drugs. We also discuss the molecular foundation of the mecha- isms underlying their anticancer action. The opportunities that exist in research for these compounds and their potential as anticancer agents, especially when coupled with ligands such as dithiocarbamates, are also reviewed.

Few interventions exist to address the high burden of stillbirths in apparently healthy pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). To establish whether a trial on the impact of routine Doppler screening in a low-risk obstetric population is warranted, we determined the prevalence of abnormal fetal umbilical artery resistance indices among low-risk pregnant women using a low-cost Doppler device in five LMICs.

In many African countries, tick control has recently been the responsibility of resource-poor farmers rather than central government veterinary departments. This has led to an increase in acaricide resistance, threatening the welfare of livestock farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Resistance has evolved to the three classes of acaricides used most extensively in the continent, namely fourth-generation synthetic pyrethroids (SP), organophosphates (OP) and amidines (AM), in virtually all countries in which they have been deployed across the globe. Most current data are derived from research in Australia and Latin America, with the majority of studies on acaricide resistance in Africa performed in South Africa. There is also limited recent research from West Africa and Uganda. These studies confirm that acaricide resistance in cattle ticks is a major problem in Africa. Resistance is most frequently directly assayed in ticks using the larval packet test (LPT) that is endorsed by FAO, but such tests require a specialist tick-rearing laboratory and are relatively time consuming. To date they have only been used on a limited scale in Africa and resistance is often still inferred from tick numbers on animals. Rapid tests for resistance in ticks, would be better than the LPT and are theoretically possible to develop. However, these are not yet available. Resistance can be mitigated through integrated control strategies, comprising a combination of methods, including acaricide class rotation or co-formulations, ethnoveterinary practices, vaccination against ticks and modified land management use by cattle, with the goal of minimising the number of acaricide applications required per year. There are data suggesting that small-scale farmers in Africa are often unaware of the chemical differences between different acaricide brands and use these products at concentrations other than those recommended by the manufacturers, or in incorrect rotations or combinations of the different classes of chemicals on the market. There is an urgent need for a more evidence-based approach to acaricide usage in small-scale livestock systems in Africa, including direct measurements of resistance levels, combined with better education of farmers regarding acaricide products and how they should be deployed for control of livestock ticks.

bstract
Background: Anatomical variations of lumbar arteries predispose them to iatrogenic injury during endovascular intervention or surgery. Due to limited morphological data on lumbar arteries in our setting, we aimed to determine their variant anatomy among Kenyans.

Methods: We performed the study on 90 cadaveric specimens and 120 computed tomography (CT) scans. Cadavers were dissected to expose the aorta and the lumbar arteries emerging from them. The number, origins, location relative to the vertebral bodies, and relations to aortic bifurcation were determined in cadavers and CT scans. Data were analyzed using SPSS (version 21.0).

Results: On average, 3 (3/90 [3.3%]), 4 (63/90 [70%]) or 5 (24/90 [26.7%]) pairs of lumbar arteries were observed among the cadaveric specimens, whereas 4 (100/120 [83.3%]) or 5 (20/120 [16.7%]) pairs were observed in CTs. Differences in the number of pairs observed in the cadaveric versus CT study were not statistically significant (P = .542). There were no sex differences in the number of lumbar artery pairs observed in CT scans (P = .178). The first 3 lumbar artery pairs had a single-origin, whereas the fourth lumbar artery had a common-stem origin. The first, second, and third lumbar arteries mostly originated at the upper third of their respective vertebral bodies. The fourth lumbar artery predominantly originated at the lower third.

Conclusion: Our study's findings show unique variation in the lumbar arteries' relation to the vertebral bodies and the distances between artery pairs.

Level of evidence: IV (cross-sectional study).

Clinical relevance: Variations in the anatomy of the lumbar arteries should be taken into consideration, especially in surgical or interventional procedures to avoid inadvertent injury of the vessels.

This study reports concentrations of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn analysed from Kenyan bean grains and leaves using Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence (TXRF) and Inductively Coupled Plasma – Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) methods. Samples of fresh bean leaves and 7 species of dry grains were collected from small scale farmers in Machakos and Kiambu counties. They were delivered to the laboratory where bean grain samples for TXRF analysis were prepared and leaves for both TXRF and ICP-OES. Standard methods of sample preparation successfully tested and used by other authors were used, Average elemental concentrations of the samples were then compared with established sufficiency values mainly given in ranges. Bean leaves from Muguga had sufficient Mn, Ni and Cu concentrations while 6% of the samples had Zn concentrations higher than the sufficiency range. Fe concentrations were consistently high with 97% of the samples having concentrations that were higher than the sufficiency range. No deficiencies were observed from bean leaves from Kyevaluki. For dry bean grains, deficiencies were observed in which four species were found to be deficient in Mn while Zn deficiency was observed in all the species. Fe concentrations were above the sufficiency ranges for all the species but not to toxic levels and 29% of the samples had Cu concentrations that were within the sufficiency range. The obtained data will be essential information for both farmers and policy makers on the nutritional quality of beans in the sampled areas. However, further studies are recommended including soil analysis and elemental bioavailability for full nutritional assessment. Keywords: ICP-OES, hidden hunger, mortality rate, cognitive development, bioavailable

Background: Pneumonia is a major cause of morbidity
and mortality globally. Despite the proven benefits of
guideline concordant antibiotic prescribing, research
has shown that adherence to clinical guideline
recommendations is dismal.
Objectives: The study aims to determine utilization of
Kenyatta National Hospital antibiotic guideline titled
‘The KNH guide to empiric antimicrobial therapy
2018’ in the management of community acquired
pneumonia in the Kenyatta National Hospital medical
wards and the perceived barriers towards the utilization
of this guideline.
Materials and methods: A check list derived from the
Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) guide to empiric
antimicrobial therapy 2018 was used to assess guideline
concordance based on seven quality indicators:
empiric antibiotic, dose and route of administration,
switch to oral antibiotics, duration of antibiotics (at
least 5 days), collection of microbiological samples
before initiating antibiotics, review of antibiotics at 48
hours and once the culture results are out. Online selfadministered questionnaires were used to determine
attitude and perceived barriers towards utilization
of the KNH guideline among the Internal Medicine
registrars and medical officers.
Analysis: Descriptive statistics were applied in
the representation of each of the seven quality
indicators. These were then compared with the
guideline recommendations and adherence to the
guideline for each parameter was expressed as a
percentage of the total number of patients admitted
with community acquired pneumonia. These were
then graded into the following categories based on the
level of concordance: Good >90%, Intermediate 60-
90%, poor <60%. Questions on the attitude and the
perceived barriers towards KNH guideline utilization
were answered using a 5 point Likert scale. Perceived
barrier statements that were positively formulated
were then recorded so that a lower score meant a
lower level of the perceived barriers and vice versa.
Percentages were then calculated for the total number
of doctors that agreed or strongly agreed that the
barrier was applicable. An open ended question on the
top three barriers to the KNH guideline utilization was
also included in the questionnaire.
Results: For each of the other quality indicators,
adherence to the KNH guideline for patients with
community acquired pneumonia was as follows:
empiric antibiotic choice 48%, collection of samples
for culture prior to antibiotic administration 0%, review
of antibiotics at 48 hours 26.4%, review of antibiotics
with culture results 45.8%, total duration of antibiotics
28.8% and time to switch to oral antibiotics 3.6%. The
top three barriers towards guideline utilization among
the doctors were: unavailability of drugs (52.7%),
inaccessibility of the KNH guideline (45.1%) and lack
of or delay of investigations (34.1%).
Conclusion: This study has demonstrated that the level
of adherence to the seven quality indicators from the
KNH guide is poor with the overall adherence being
35.5%. The recommendation least adhered to was
collection of microbiological samples before initiation
of empiric antibiotics. The most commonly identified
barriers to utilization of the guideline were external
and guideline related barriers.
Key words: Guide to empiric antimicrobial therapy
2018, Guideline Concordance antibiotic prescribing,
Community acquired pneumonia

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Transportation infrastructure, such as railways, roads and power lines, contribute to national and regional economic, social and cultural growth and integration. Kenya, with support from the Chinese government, is currently constructing a standard gauge railway (SGR) to support the country’s Vision 2030 development agenda. Although the actual land area affected by the SGR covers only a small proportion along the SGR corridor, a significant proportion of the area supports a wide range of ecologically fragile and important ecosystems in the country, with potential wider impacts. This study used a qualitative content analysis approach to gain an understanding and perceptions of stakeholders on the potential ecological impacts of the interactions between the SGR and the traversed ecological systems in Kenya. Three dominant themes emerged: 1) ecosystem degradation; 2) ecosystem fragmentation; and 3) ecosystem destruction. Ecosystem degradation was the most commonly cited impact at while ecosystem destruction was of the least concern and largely restricted to the physical SGR construction whereas the degradation and fragmentation have a much wider footprint. The construction and operation of the SGR degraded, fragmented and destroyed key ecosystems in the country including water towers, protected areas, community conservancies and wildlife dispersal areas. Therefore, we recommend that project proponents develop sustainable and ecologically sensitive measures to mitigate the key ecosystem impacts.

is widely used in Sub-Saharan Africa for treating many diseases, including HIV-1 infection. We have recently described the chemical structures of 28 compounds isolated from an alcoholic crude extract of barks and roots of , and showed that six bioactive compounds inhibit HIV-1 infection. In the present study, we demonstrate that the six compounds block HIV-1 entry into cells: oleanolic acid, palmitic acid, taxifolin, piceatannol, guibourtinidol-(4α→8)-epiafzelechin, and a novel compound named as cassiabrevone. We report, for the first time, that guibourtinidol-(4α→8)-epiafzelechin and cassiabrevone inhibit HIV-1 entry (IC of 42.47 µM and 30.96 µM, respectively), as well as that piceatannol interacts with cellular membranes. Piceatannol inhibits HIV-1 infection in a dual-chamber assay mimicking the female genital tract, as well as HSV infection, emphasizing its potential as a microbicide. Structure-activity relationships (SAR) showed that pharmacophoric groups of piceatannol are strictly required to inhibit HIV-1 entry. By a ligand-based in silico study, we speculated that piceatannol and norartocarpetin may have a very similar mechanism of action and efficacy because of the highly comparable pharmacophoric and 3D space, while guibourtinidol-(4α→8)-epiafzelechin and cassiabrevone may display a different mechanism. We finally show that cassiabrevone plays a major role of the crude extract of by blocking the binding activity of HIV-1 gp120 and CD4.

To evaluate the association between obstetric and medical risk factors and stillbirths in a Kenyan set-up.

Infections are among the leading causes of maternal mortality and morbidity. The Global Maternal Sepsis and Neonatal Initiative, launched in 2016 by WHO and partners, sought to reduce the burden of maternal infections and sepsis and was the basis upon which the Global Maternal Sepsis Study (GLOSS) was implemented in 2017. In this Article, we aimed to describe the availability of facility resources and services and to analyse their association with maternal outcomes.

About 2.6 million stillbirths per year occur globally with 98% occurring in low- and middle-income countries including Kenya, where an estimated 35 000 stillbirths occur annually. Most studies have focused on the direct causes of stillbirth. The aim of this study was to determine the association between antenatal care utilization and quality with stillbirth in a Kenyan set up. This information is key when planning strategies to reduce the stillbirth burden.

Complications of respiratory infections including pleural effusion (PE) are associated with a high morbidity. Differentiating between PE caused by (Mtb) infection and other bacterial infections in endemic areas is difficult in children, thus, impacting treatment.

Tropical Africa experienced large changes in hydroclimatic conditions since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), ∼26.5 to 19 thousand years (ka or kyr) ago. The hydrogen isotopic composition of fossil leaf waxes (δDwax), assumed to record past variations in the hydrogen isotopic composition of precipitation (δDprecip), is increasingly being used to study past hydroclimatic change in Africa, and are commonly interpreted to reflect variation in the amount of precipitation through time (i.e., the amount effect). Although there are now many such δDprecip records from tropical Africa, there are few robust δDprecip records from easternmost equatorial Africa of sufficient length and resolution to evaluate the mechanisms governing hydroclimate variation during and since the LGM. We produced a new δDprecip record based on analyses of δDwax in sediment cores collected from Lake Rutundu, situated at an elevation of 3,078 meters above sea level (m asl) on Mt. Kenya. This record displays large variations in δDprecip corresponding with known climate events over the past 25 kyr, including D-enrichment during the Heinrich 1 stadial (H1) and the Younger Dryas (YD), and D-depletion during the Holocene portion of the African Humid Period (AHP). We also observe D-depletion during the LGM relative to the late Holocene, which, considering the amount effect, could be interpreted to imply that LGM climate conditions were wetter than today. However, because other hydroclimate proxies at this site indicate a drier LGM climate at Lake Rutundu, and since precipitation isotopes at this high-elevation site are likely influenced by different processes than at low elevations, we used a single-column Rayleigh distillation model to evaluate temperature and altitude-related effects on high-elevation δDprecip. This revealed that a change in the temperature lapse rate exerts strong control on δDprecip in this high-elevation setting, and that a steeper lapse rate could explain the observed D-depletion during the LGM at our site. Comparison of the Lake Rutundu δDprecip record with other leaf-wax based δDprecip records from East Africa indicates that changes in the meridional precipitation gradient associated with the mean annual position and intensity of the tropical rain belt, in turn driven by precessional insolation forcing, were likely a primary control on East African hydroclimate over the past 25 kyr, thereby contributing to overall regional drying during the LGM.

Tropical Africa experienced large changes in hydroclimatic conditions since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), ∼26.5 to 19 thousand years (ka or kyr) ago. The hydrogen isotopic composition of fossil leaf waxes (δDwax), assumed to record past variations in the hydrogen isotopic composition of precipitation (δDprecip), is increasingly being used to study past hydroclimatic change in Africa, and are commonly interpreted to reflect variation in the amount of precipitation through time (i.e., the amount effect). Although there are now many such δDprecip records from tropical Africa, there are few robust δDprecip records from easternmost equatorial Africa of sufficient length and resolution to evaluate the mechanisms governing hydroclimate variation during and since the LGM. We produced a new δDprecip record based on analyses of δDwax in sediment cores collected from Lake Rutundu, situated at an elevation of 3,078 meters above sea level (m asl) on Mt. Kenya. This record displays large variations in δDprecip corresponding with known climate events over the past 25 kyr, including D-enrichment during the Heinrich 1 stadial (H1) and the Younger Dryas (YD), and D-depletion during the Holocene portion of the African Humid Period (AHP). We also observe D-depletion during the LGM relative to the late Holocene, which, considering the amount effect, could be interpreted to imply that LGM climate conditions were wetter than today. However, because other hydroclimate proxies at this site indicate a drier LGM climate at Lake Rutundu, and since precipitation isotopes at this high-elevation site are likely influenced by different processes than at low elevations, we used a single-column Rayleigh distillation model to evaluate temperature and altitude-related effects on high-elevation δDprecip. This revealed that a change in the temperature lapse rate exerts strong control on δDprecip in this high-elevation setting, and that a steeper lapse rate could explain the observed D-depletion during the LGM at our site. Comparison of the Lake Rutundu δDprecip record with other leaf-wax based δDprecip records from East Africa indicates that changes in the meridional precipitation gradient associated with the mean annual position and intensity of the tropical rain belt, in turn driven by precessional insolation forcing, were likely a primary control on East African hydroclimate over the past 25 kyr, thereby contributing to overall regional drying during the LGM.

Purpose
The study aims to estimate the rates of exposure to, and adoption of, rural bank credit programs by smallholder farmers in rural Ghana and the factors responsible for those rates.

Design/methodology/approach
The study used a random sample of 300 smallholder farmers in the Fanteakwa District of Ghana, obtained through the multistage sampling technique. The study also employed the average treatment effects approach to estimate the average treatment effect of farmers’ exposure to rural bank credit programs, on their adoption of such programs.

Findings
The actual adoption rate is approximately 41%, and the potential, conditional on the whole population being aware of rural bank credit programs, is approximately 61%. Accordingly, there is a gap of about 20% in the adoption of rural bank credit programs, and is due to the incomplete exposure of smallholder farmers to the rural bank credit programs. Age of the household head, access to extension services, membership in farmer-based organizations and active savings accounts with a rural bank are the major contributors to smallholder farmer exposure to and the adoption of rural bank credit programs.

Originality/value
The current study is the first of its kind to be conducted in Ghana on rural bank credit programs. It takes into account the extent to which smallholder farmers are exposed to such credit programs and how it influences their decisions to access or adopt.

This book chapter aims at exploring the preparation, characterization and applications of plant/animal fiber-reinforced polymer composites. The book addresses several key research work that have been happening as well as some of the drawbacks that affect the application of these composites in real-life applications. Each chapter begins with an overview of the various forms of plant/animal fiber-reinforced polymer composites, followed by examples of composites made up of plant/animal fibers and their promising future in terms of research and development and application in domestic and engineering products. Today, man has realized that if the environment is not preserved, the over-consumption of naturally existing resources and a drastic reduction in the amount of fresh air generated in the world would endanger him. Forest conservation and the efficient use of agricultural as well as other renewable resources such as solar, wind and tidal energy have already become critical issues globally.With this kind of concern, the utilization of renewable materials such as plant/animal fiber-reinforced polymeric composites is slowly becoming a key design requirement for the design and development of parts for a wide range of industrial products. An extensive research into such composites can, to an extent, lead to an even greener and healthier environment

The global use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHS) as an important means of controlling the transmission of infectious disease has increased significantly as governments and public health agencies across the world advocated hand hygiene as a preventative measure during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the performance of these products is most commonly defined as a function of their alcohol concentration, they are multifaceted products in which an interplay of several factors is important in determining efficacy. This paper discusses the interplay between ABHS input (formulation) factors and output (product performance) factors in the context of a multidimen-sional perspective using a novel representative paradigm. In the model, represented in the form of a three-dimensional tetrahedron, each of the faces represents inputs in the manufacturing of the ABHS product, which are the type and amount of alcohol, the inactive ingredients, the formulation and the manufacturing practices. The four corners of the tetrahedron represent the product per-formance factors which include product efficacy, sensory characteristics, usage and compliance and product safety. The multidimensional approach to the formulation and evaluation of ABHS shows that several factors contribute to the effectiveness and utility of these products. The paradigm provides a useful framework for manufacturers of ABHS and related healthcare products.

A new iboga-vobasine-type isomeric bisindole alkaloid named voacamine A (1), along with eight known compounds—voacangine (2), voacristine (3), coronaridine (4), tabernanthine (5), ibox-ygaine (6), voacamine (7), voacorine (8) and conoduramine (9)—were isolated from the stem bark of Voacanga africana. The structures of the compounds were determined by comprehensive spec-troscopic analyses. Compounds 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 were found to inhibit the motility of both the microfilariae (Mf) and adult male worms of Onchocerca ochengi, in a dose-dependent manner, but were only moderately active on the adult female worms upon biochemical assessment at 30 μM drug concentrations. The IC50 values of the isolates are 2.49–5.49 µM for microfilariae and 3.45–17.87 µM for adult males. Homology modeling was used to generate a 3D model of the O. ochengi thioredoxin reductase target and docking simulation, followed by molecular dynamics and binding free energy calculations attempted to offer an explanation of the anti-onchocercal struc-ture–activity relationship (SAR) of the isolated compounds. These alkaloids are new potential leads for the development of antifilarial drugs. The results of this study validate the traditional use of V. africana in the treatment of human onchocerciasis.

Description
Introduction:
Macaranga species are traditionally used for the treatment and management of coughing, fungal infection, and wounds. In this study, the phytochemical screening and antibacterial activities of nine crude extracts from Macaranga conglomerata, Macaranga kilimandscharica and Macaranga capensis were determined against 13 bacterial strains expressing multi-drug resistance (MDR) phenotypes.
Methods:
Phytochemical screening of the extracts were carried out according to the standard methods, while the iodonitrotetrazolium chloride (INT) colorimetric assay was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the plants extracts.
Results:
Flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins and coumarins were the major secondary metabolites found in all the plant extracts. The results of antibacterial studies revealed that all the plant extracts displayed good activities with MIC values ranging from 4–128 µg/mL against the tested micro-organisms. Most of the extracts exhibited a bactericidal effect against E. coli, E. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, P. stuartii, P. aeruginosa, and

Description
In this study, the antileishmanial and cytotoxic activities of secondary metabolites isolated from Tabernaemontana ventricosa Hochst. ex A. DC., Aloe tororoana Reynolds, and Aloe schweinfurthii var. labworana Reynolds were investigated. Overall, nineteen known compounds were isolated from the three plant species. The compounds were characterized based on their spectroscopic data. Voacristine and aloenin were the most active compounds against promastigotes of antimony-sensitive Leishmania donovani (IC50 11 ± 5.2 μM and 26 ± 6.5 µM, respectively) with low toxicity against RAW264.7, murine monocyte/macrophage-like cells. The in silico docking evaluation and in vitro NO generation assay also substantially support the antileishmanial effects of these compounds. In a cytotoxicity assay against cancer and normal cell lines, ursolic acid highly inhibited proliferation of lung cancer cells, A549 …

Background: Africa has one of the highest incidences of gonorrhea. Neisseria gonorrhoeae is gaining resistance to most of the available antibiotics, compromising treatment across the world. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) is an efficient way of predicting AMR determinants and their spread in the population. Recent advances in next-generation sequencing technologies like Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) have helped in the generation of longer reads of DNA in a shorter duration with lower cost. Increasing accuracy of base-calling algorithms, high throughput, error-correction strategies, and ease of using the mobile sequencer MinION in remote areas lead to its adoption for routine microbial genome sequencing. To investigate whether MinION-only sequencing is sufficient for WGS and downstream analysis in resource-limited settings, we sequenced the genomes of 14 suspected N. gonorrhoeae isolates from Nairobi, Kenya.

Methods: Using WGS, the isolates were confirmed to be cases of N. gonorrhoeae (n = 9), and there were three co-occurrences of N. gonorrhoeae with Moraxella osloensis and N. meningitidis (n = 2). N. meningitidis has been implicated in sexually transmitted infections in recent years. The near-complete N. gonorrhoeae genomes (n = 10) were analyzed further for mutations/factors causing AMR using an in-house database of mutations curated from the literature.

Results: We observe that ciprofloxacin resistance is associated with multiple mutations in both gyrA and parC. Mutations conferring tetracycline (rpsJ) and sulfonamide (folP) resistance and plasmids encoding beta-lactamase were seen in all the strains, and tet(M)-containing plasmids were identified in nine strains. Phylogenetic analysis clustered the 10 isolates into clades containing previously sequenced genomes from Kenya and countries across the world. Based on homology modeling of AMR targets, we see that the mutations in GyrA and ParC disrupt the hydrogen bonding with quinolone drugs and mutations in FolP may affect interaction with the antibiotic.

Conclusion: Here, we demonstrate the utility of mobile DNA sequencing technology in producing a consensus genome for sequence typing and detection of genetic determinants of AMR. The workflow followed in the study, including AMR mutation dataset creation and the genome identification, assembly, and analysis, can be used for any clinical isolate. Further studies are required to determine the utility of real-time sequencing in outbreak investigations, diagnosis, and management of infections, especially in resource-limited settings.

Description
Five known compounds (1–5) were isolated from the extract of Mundulea sericea leaves. Similar investigation of the roots of this plant afforded an additional three known compounds (6–8). The structures were elucidated using NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric analyses. The absolute configuration of 1 was established using ECD spectroscopy. In an antiplasmodial activity assay, compound 1 showed good activity with an IC50 of 2.0 μM against chloroquine-resistant W2, and 6.6 μM against the chloroquine-sensitive 3D7 strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Some of the compounds were also tested for antileishmanial activity. Dehydrolupinifolinol (2) and sericetin (5) were active against drug-sensitive Leishmania donovani (MHOM/IN/83/AG83) with IC50 values of 9.0 and 5.0 μM, respectively. In a cytotoxicity assay, lupinifolin (3) showed significant activity on BEAS-2B (IC50 4.9 μM) and HePG2 (IC50 10.8 μM …

One highly undesirable characteristic of mature assets that inhibits oil recovery is high
water production. Polymer gel treatment is a popular conformance improvement technique applied
in this regard due to its cost effectiveness and proved efficiency. Despite this popularity, optimum
performance of polymer hydrogels in water shut off is inhibited by excessive aggregation, difficulty
in controlling gelation, and their instability at high temperature and high salinity reservoir conditions.
To address these shortcomings, research on the application of nanoparticles (NPs) in polymer
hydrogels to manage thermal stability and salinity sensitivity has significantly increased in the recent
past. By incorporating metal-based NPs, silica or graphene at nanoscale; the gel strength, storage
modulus, salinity tolerance and thermal stability of commonly used polymers have been greatly
enhanced. In this paper, the advances in experimental studies on polymer-based nanocomposites are
discussed and field experiences from adoption of polymer composites reviewed.

Abstract
Sulal River is a victim of nutrient pollution as it crosses different small-scale tea farms in Bureti Sub County, Kericho County. A study was conducted to evaluate different physicochemical parameters and major chemical fertilizer’s nutrients levels in water and sediments from Sulal River. In order to understand the degree of pollution in the river due to inflow of agricultural chemical fertilizer residue levels from its catchment, the samples were collected in the dry (February 2019) and wet seasons (November 2019). The ten chosen sampling sites stretched a length of 12 Km. Samples were analyzed for pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), sediment and water content (WC), nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), phosphorous (PO3-P) and potassium (K) using standard methods. Results were analyzed using IBM SPSS 20. The average results during dry and wet seasons in water samples for pH were 6.72±0.05 and 6.38±0.21, DO 6.78±0.59 and 9.58±0.64 mg/L, EC 174±5.02 and 205±20.14 µS /cm, TDS 92±4.59 and 120.70±19.57 mg/L, NO3-N 0.58±0.21 and 1.19±0.22 mg/L, PO3-P 0.00±0.00 and 0.13±0.84 mg/L and K 0.26±0.08 and 0.84±0.19 mg/L respectively. The average results during dry and wet seasons in sediment samples for pH were 6.62±0.20 and 6.75±0.17, EC, 67±6.66 and 52±10.19 µS /cm, WC 16.96±3.95 and 129.84±5.00%, NO3-N 0.70±0.35 and 0.42±0.23 mg/kg, PO3-P 0.49±0.25 and 1.14±0.40 mg/kg and K 1.53±0.45 and 2.86±0.31 mg/kg respectively. The levels of P in water during wet season and in sediments samples in both seasons were however, above the WHO (0.025 mg/L) and KEBS (0.030 mg/L) recommended limit for drinking and domestic use and WASREB (0.005 mg/L) level for the likelihood of eutrophication. Availability of excess phosphorus can accelerate eutrophication. The diversity of cancers has also been associated with drinking water containing phosphorous levels. The water from Sulal River may be used for irrigation purposes but not for drinking and domestic purposes. Significant seasonal variations were observed in all parameters analyzed except NO3-N in sediments. This indicates that rainfall had a great effect on some soil physicochemical properties.

Description
The study was carried out to evaluate the levels of heavy metals in groundwater samples from ten selected boreholes in Ongata Rongai town, Kajiado County. The selected heavy metals analyzed were: Zn, Pb, Hg, Mn, Cd and Cr in the dry and wet seasons. The effect of the proximity of septic tanks distance to borehole was also determined. The statistical analyses of the data using a 2-way ANOVA showed 95% confidence level (p< 0.05) interdependence of the distance from the boreholes and contaminant levels. The study showed that heavy metals were below the maximum recommended level and the guideline values of World Health Organization and Kenya Bureau of Standards. The analyses of the selected heavy metals, by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, revealed that the detected levels of Mn (0.03±0.01-0.26±0.01 mgl-1) were higher than those recommended by WHO and KEBS of 0.01 mgl-1, while Zn (0.11±0.02-0.73±0.01 mgl-1) are within acceptable levels of WHO (3.0 mgl-1) and KEBS (5.0 mgl-1). There was no strong correlation between the distance of borehole from septic tanks and heavy metal levels in water samples. The low detected values should not be overlooked as the heavy metals are capable of bio-accumulating in body tissues.

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Increasing numbers of potentially zoonotic multidrug-resistant (MDR) staphylococci strains, associated with mastitis in dairy cows, are being reported globally and threaten disease management in both animal and human health. However, the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of these strains, including methicillin-resistant staphylococci (MRS), in Kenya is not well known. This study investigated the drug resistance profiles and genes carried by 183 staphylococci isolates from 142 dairy cows representing 93 farms recovered from mastitis milk of dairy cows in two selected counties in Kenya. Staphylococci isolates were characterized by phenotypic characteristics, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, partial sequencing and susceptibility testing for 10 antimicrobial drugs. Detection of seven resistance genes to the various antimicrobial drugs was conducted using PCR. Overall, phenotypic resistance among the staphylococci ranged between 66.1% for ampicillin and 3.5% for fluoroquinolones. Twenty-five percent (25%) of S. aureus and 10.8% of the coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) isolates, were methicillin-resistant staphylococci phenotypically (defined as resistance to cefoxitin disk diffusion). The most common genes found in S. aureus and CoNS were blaZ and strB at 44.3% and 26%, and 78% and 50%, respectively. MDR was observed in 29.67% and 16.3% of S. aureus and CoNS, respectively. These findings pose a threat to bovine mastitis treatment and management as well as human health.

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This work reports on the use of diatomaceous earth (DE) waste and organic binder derived from Corchorus olitorius, locally known as “Mrenda” in the design of an efficient water filtration membranes. Charcoal powder was incorporated to enhance the porosity of the membrane. The firing was done at temperatures varying from 700.0 °C to 1150.0 °C. The DE waste samples comprised 79.0% silica (by mass) and 11.0% total flux content compared to porter's clay that had 50.0% silica, 28.8% AL2O3 and 7.0% total flux content. On the other hand, the “Mrenda” binder contained 6.5% total organic matter. The use of the plant- derived binder enhanced the mechanical strength of the greenware by 52.7% and the fired membranes by 152.2%. The fabricated DE waste-based membranes were 15.0% stronger than clay-based ceramic membranes prepared under similar conditions. A sintering temperature of 900.0 °C was optimal in producing porous membranes for filtering of 4.1 liters of water per hour. The pore diameter of the membranes fabricated from DE waste only ranged between 2.0 nm – 99.0 nm. On micro-organisms filtering efficacy, the DE waste-based membranes and those fabricated with 5.0% charcoal were 99.9% and 88.4% effective in the removal of E. coli and Rotavirus respectively.

The association of antimicrobial usage (AMU) with prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) , including methicillin-resistant (MRSA) in livestock raw milk consumed by pastoralists in Kenya remains unclear. We investigated the relationship between AMU and emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) , including MRSA in raw milk of livestock. AMU data were obtained using sales records from veterinary pharmacies. was isolated from 603 milk samples from various livestock species, including sheep, goat, cow, and camel reared in Isiolo and Marsabit counties in Kenya. Resistant phenotypes and genotypes were determined by disc diffusion and molecular methods, respectively. Correlation between AMU and occurrence of resistance was determined by Pearson's correlation coefficient () method. The consumption of various antimicrobial classes were as follows; 4,168 kg of oxytetracycline, 70 kg of sulfonamides, 49.7 kg of aminoglycosides, 46 kg of beta-lactams, 39.4 kg of macrolides, and 0.52 kg for trimethoprim. The isolates were mainly resistant to tetracycline (79%), ampicillin (58%), and oxacillin (33%), respectively. A few isolates (5-18%) were resistant to clindamycin, cephalexin, erythromycin, kanamycin, and ciprofloxacin. Most of the MDR- isolates were MRSA (94%). The genetic determinants found in the AMR isolates included K/M (96.5%/19%) for tetracycline, (79%) for penicillin, (53%) for aminoglycosides, A (41%) for oxacillin, and A/A (24%/7%) for macrolides. Oxytetracycline usage was correlated to K/M ( = 0.62/1) detection, penicillins to A/ ( = 0.86/0.98), aminoglycoside to ( 0.76/-13), and macrolide usages for detection of A/A ( = 0.94/0.77). AMU appeared to be associated with occurrence of MDR-SA and the M detection. Consumption of raw milk contaminated with MRSA could pose a serious public health risk in pastoral communities in northern Kenya.

Theileria parva is a tick-transmitted apicomplexan protozoan parasite that infects lymphocytes of cattle and African Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), causing a frequently fatal disease of cattle in eastern, central and southern Africa. A live vaccination procedure, known as infection and treatment method (ITM), the most frequently used version of which comprises the Muguga, Serengeti-transformed and Kiambu 5 stocks of T. parva, delivered as a trivalent cocktail, is generally effective. However, it does not always induce 100% protection against heterologous parasite challenge. Knowledge of the genetic diversity of T. parva in target cattle populations is therefore important prior to extensive vaccine deployment. This study investigated the extent of genetic diversity within T. parva field isolates derived from Ankole (Bos taurus) cattle in south-western Uganda using 14 variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) satellite loci and the sequences of two antigen-encoding genes that are targets of CD8+T-cell responses induced by ITM, designated Tp1 and Tp2. The findings revealed a T. parva prevalence of 51% confirming endemicity of the parasite in south-western Uganda. Cattle-derived T. parva VNTR genotypes revealed a high degree of polymorphism. However, all of the T. parva Tp1 and Tp2 alleles identified in this study have been reported previously, indicating that they are widespread geographically in East Africa and highly conserved.