During the development of continental rifts, strain accommodation shifts from border faults to intra-rift faults. This transition represents a critical process in the evolution of rift basins in the East African Rift, resulting in the focusing of strain and, ultimately, continental breakup. An analysis of fault and fluid systems in the younger than 7 Ma Natron and Magadi basins (Kenya-Tanzania border) reveals the transition as a complex interaction between plate flexure, magma emplacement, and magmatic volatile release. Rift basin development was investigated by analyzing fault systems, lava chronology, and geochemistry of spring systems. Results show that extensional strain in the 3 Ma Natron basin is primarily accommodated along the border fault, whereas results from the 7 Ma Magadi basin reveal a transition to intra-rift fault-dominated strain accommodation. The focusing of strain into a system of intra-rift faults in Magadi also occurred without oblique-style rifting, as is observed in Ethiopia, and border fault hanging-wall flexure can account for only a minor portion of faulting along the central rift axis (~12% or less). Instead, areas of high upper crustal strain coincide with the presence of hydrothermal springs that exhibit carbon isotopes and N2-He-Ar abundances indicating mixing between mantle-derived (magmatic) fluids and air saturated water. By comparing the distribution of fault-related strain and zones of magmatic fluid release in the 3 Ma Natron and 7 Ma Magadi basins, we present a conceptual model for the evolution of early-stage rifting. In the first 3 m.y., border faults accommodate the majority of regional extension (1.24-1.78 mm yr⁻¹ in Natron at a slip rate ranging 1.93-3.56 mm yr⁻¹), with a significant portion of intra-rift faulting (38%-96%) driven by flexure of the border fault hanging wall. Fluids released from magma bodies ascend along the border fault and then outward into nearby faults forming in the flexing hanging wall. By 7 m.y., there is a reduction in the amount of extension accommodated along the border fault (0.40-0.66 mm yr⁻¹ in Magadi at a slip rate ranging from 0.62 to 1.32 mm yr⁻¹), and regional extension is primarily accommodated in the intra-rift fault population (1.34-1.60 mm yr⁻¹), with an accompanying transition of magmatic volatile release into the rift center. The focusing of magma toward the rift center and concomitant release of magmatic fluids into the flexing hanging wall provides a previously unrecognized mechanism that may help to weaken crust and assist the transition to intra-rift dominated strain accommodation. We conclude that the flow of magmatic fluids within fault systems plays an important role in weakening lithosphere and focusing upper crustal strain in early-stage continental rift basins prior to the establishment of magmatic segments.

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Rice is a staple food in Kenya and its production needs to be increased. Genetically modified (GM) rice
may be a solution, but before it can be introduced, potential ecological impacts, such as pollen
mediated gene flow from GM rice to non-GM rice or to its wild indigenous relatives, need to be
understood. Pollen dispersal in rice (Oryza sativa) was studied in the Tana River district in the coast
province of Kenya. O. sativa seedlings were planted in a 50 m diameter circular experimental design.
Pollen traps (glass slides coated by vaseline attached to a board) were used to measure pollen flow at 2
heights and at increasing distances from the source plot. Pollen dispersal decreased rapidly with
increasing distance from the pollen source up to 250 m, no pollen was found at 300 m. There was a
significant (P < 0.05) difference in pollen dispersal in different directions, which correlated with the
prevailing wind direction (south, occasionally east). Effect on wind speed and humidity could not be
evaluated as they were relatively stable during the sampling period. No overall difference (P > 0.05) in
pollen count between upper and lower pollen traps. The highest daily pollen count was observed
between 11:00 am and 12:00 noon, and at a narrow range of temperatures 28 ± 2ºC. On the basis of
these data, an adequate isolation distance of more than 250 m should be considered to minimize
chances of gene flow from transgenic rice to conventional or wild rices.

Photo–thermo-sensitive genic male sterile (P(T)GMS) rice is a new hybrid rice technology that uses prolonged
light length and high temperatures to induce sterility. This technology is being introduced in Kenya but such
growth conditions are lacking in the tropics. To overcome this, we grew P(T)GMS under greenhouse conditions
where day light length was prolonged to 14 hrs using solar illumination and day and night temperatures were
maintained above 36Cº and 24ºC respectively. Sterility of P(T)GMS was determined by the level of abortive
pollen and seed set rates. Hybrid seeds were produced by crossing three P(T)GMS lines (V1PGM, V2TGM and
V3PGM) as female lines with Basmati 370 and Basmati 217 varieties as pollen donors. Under long and normal
day lengths and high temperatures, pollen sterility ranged from 99-100% but no seeds were set in PGMS lines.
However, TGMS recorded 3% and 2% seed set under similar conditions. Under natural conditions both PGMS
and TGMS reverted to fertility. Agronomic evaluation showed outstanding (P<0.01) performance of hybrids over
parents in flag leaf length (V2370; 35.8 cm), panicle exsertion (V2217; 8cm) and shorter flowering time (V3217;
85 days) under greenhouse conditions while flag leaf width (V1370; 1.48 cm) and tillering (100) performed better
under natural conditions. Percentage seed set positively correlated with flag leaf related traits and flowering days
but negatively correlated with panicle length, panicle exsertion and tillering. We conclude that the P(T)GMS lines
are adaptable for hybrid rice seed production in Kenya but there is need to review the P(T)GMS lines’ background
so as to minimize incompatibility in hybrids.Key words: Oryza sativa, Basmati, PGMS/TGMS, seed technology, pollen sterility.

A study was done to determine the influence of Acacia senegal variety and var.kerensis on quality of gum arabic in solit, kapkun, kimorok and maoi, Marigat division, baringo District. Soil and gum arabic samples were collected, dried and analysed to establish their chemical characteristics. Gum nitrogen from A. senegal variety senegal in kapnun and solit was negatively correlated to soil nitrogen (r=-0.28), while gum nitrogen from variety kerensis at kimorok and Maoi was positively correlated to soil nitrogen (r=0.16), respectively. High nitrogen content in soils was significantly correlated to high content of nitrogen (0.30%) in gum arabic obtained from A.senegal varieties. Gum copper was highly correlated to soil copper (r=0.09;p<0.01), soil iron was highly correlated to gum iron (r=0.09; p<0.05) and soil manganese and gum manganese was negatively correlated (r= -0.08; p<0.05). Gum zinc from A. senegal variety senegal at kapkun and Solit was negatively correlated to soil nitrogen and (r=-0.15), respectively. Nitrogen, iron, manganese and zinc contents in gums from A.senegal varieties fell within the ranges of the international standard specifications (0.26 to 0.39% N, iron (730 to 2490 ppm), manganese (69 to 117 ppm) and zinc (45 to 111ppm), respectively. A.senegal variety senegal in Solit and kapkun produced better quality of gum arabic than A. senegal variety kerensis in kimorok and Maoi.

The  study found out that Masinga Dam has adversely affected the public health in the communities around the dam. malaria was the most prevalent ailment followed by typhoid fever. Bilharzia has also increased since the dam was constructed.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is widely accessible to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals in Kenya. Their long term use is associated with chronic complications such as lipodystrophy which may lead to stigmatization, reduced self esteem and poor adherence to HAART. This cross-sectional study described the prevalence of lipodystrophy, the phenotypes and severity among adult HIV infected patients on chronic HAART at a HIV clinic in Kenya. Data were collected using an investigator administered questionnaire and anthropometric measurements done using a protocol based on the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The prevalence of lipodystrophy was 51.3% (confidence interval (CI) 45.6 to 57.6). Lipoatrophy occurred in 44%, lipohypertrophy in 15% and mixed syndrome in 41% of patients with lipodystrophy. Facial atrophy occurred in 75.7% of patients with lipodystrophy, upper limb atrophy in 48.5%, and lower limb atrophy in 36.8%. Abdominal obesity occurred in 40.4% of patients with lipodystrophy, breast enlargement in 30.9% and dorsocervical fat accumulation in 5.1%. Most patients had severe lipoatrophy, whereas lipohypertrophy was described as mild to moderate using the HIV out-patient study (HOPS) scale. HIV associated lipodystrophy was common in HIV-infected patients on chronic HAART. The main phenotype was lipoatrophy which majority of the patients described as severe.

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Most urban areas in Kenya are facing water crisis due to rapid population growth, industrialization and climate change. This study investigates potential of harvesting water from fog and air humidity over urban cities in Kenya. Daily air temperature, dew point temperature, wind direction and speed were used. Parameters including atmospheric water vapor pressure, saturated vapor pressure and the absolute and relative humidity of the atmosphere were derived. Air temperatures ranged between 18.2 and 27.6°C in urban areas. Mean annual foggy days was higher at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport (JKIA) with a maximum of 17 foggy days compared to other stations. However, mean annual harvesting days was higher at Moi International Airport (MIA) with a maximum of 350 days. Based on device efficiency of 10%, stations in Nairobi city (JKIA/Dagorretti Corner/Wilson Airport) indicated maximum water harvesting potential of 3.2/1.4/2.9 litres/m2/day in direction d6 (225 -270°) while Kisumu station showed highest potential of harvesting water (2.2 litres/m2/day) in direction d5 (180-225°). In Mombasa, the MIA and Lamu stations showed potential of harvesting 4.4 litres/m2/day and 3.9 litres/m2/day in direction d6 and d5 respectively. Based on monthly distribution of potential monthly water, harvesting from fog and air humidity was classified into either coastal or non-coastal/continental regions. The urban cities in Kenya have high potential of water harvesting from fog and air humidity presenting an alternative sustainable low cost approach to augmenting available fresh water sources and alleviating existing water stress. This will enable achievement of Kenya’s long term development footprint (Vision 2030) and Millennium Development Goals.

We show empirically that bank's exposure to interest rate risk or income gap determines the
structure of the balance sheet. In particular, we show that in Kenya, commercial banks typically
retain a large exposure to interest rates that can be predicted through the income gap. We also
establish the sensitivity of income gaps to market interest rates as determined by the Central Bank
of Kenya (CBK) through treasury instruments. Quantitatively, a 200 basis point change in CBK
rates would lead to a change of net income equivalent to 0.4% of total assets of the bank.

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BACKGROUND:

Occupational noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) occurs among workers exposed to excessive amounts of noise for long durations. The average level of noise in some locations at Jomo Kenyatta International Airport (JKIA) was above the safe limit of 85dB hence workers were thought to be at risk.
OBJECTIVE:

To determine the occurrence and socio demographic attributes for NIHL at JKIA.
DESIGN:

Cross sectional descriptive study. Setting: Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Nairobi, Kenya.
RESULTS:

Mean age of respondents was 37 years with range 22 to 62, SD 8.98. Mean duration of exposure to noise was 10.7 years with range 1 to 40, SD 8.15. Prevalence of NIHL was 15.3%, with ground crew at 14.8% and air crew 16.1%. Ground crew had significantly poorer mean hearing threshold level at 3, 4 and 6 kHz than air crew (p = 0.015). Male workers were affected more than female counterparts with a male to female ratio of 4:3. 97% of those affected were non-managers, 3% managers while 68% of those affected resided in Embakasi Division close to the airport. Hearing threshold level at 4 kHz deteriorated with increasing age whereby those aged 50 years and above had a 13.7 times higher relative risk than those aged 20 to 29 years. Duration of exposure more than 10 years also had significantly higher risk (p < 0.01) for hearing loss at 4 kHz.
CONCLUSION:

Occupational noise induced hearing loss occurs atJKIA and that ground crew and older workers are more vulnerable. We recommend that prevention programmes be put in place.

Background: Effective interventions to reduce mortality and morbidity in maternal and newborn health already exist. Information about quality and performance of care and the use of critical interventions are useful for shaping improvements in health care and strengthening the contribution of health systems towards the Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5. The near-miss concept and the criterion-based clinical audit are proposed as useful approaches for obtaining such information in maternal and newborn health care. This paper presents the methods of the World Health Organization Multicountry Study in Maternal and Newborn Health. The main objectives of this study are to determine the prevalence of maternal near-miss cases in a
worldwide network of health facilities, evaluate the quality of care using the maternal near-miss concept and the criterion-based clinical audit, and develop the near-miss concept in neonatal health.

Methods/Design: This is a large cross-sectional study being implemented in a worldwide network of health facilities. A total of 370 health facilities from 29 countries will take part in this study and produce nearly 275,000 observations. All women giving birth, all maternal near-miss cases regardless of the gestational age and delivery status and all maternal deaths during the study period comprise the study population. In each health facility, medical records of all eligible women will be reviewed during a data collection period that
ranges from two to three months according to the annual number of deliveries.

Discussion: Implementing the systematic identification of near-miss cases, mapping the use of critical evidence-based interventions and analysing the corresponding indicators are just the initial steps for using the maternal nearmiss concept as a tool to improve maternal and newborn health. The findings of projects using approaches similar to those described in this manuscript will be a good starter for a more comprehensive dialogue with governments, professionals and civil societies, health systems or facilities for promoting best practices, improving quality of care and achieving better health for mothers and children.

OBJECTIVES:
To determine the thyroid profile and the prevalence of gestational thyrotoxicosis among women with emesis during early pregnancy.
DESIGN:
A descriptive cross-sectional study.
SETTING:
Kenyatta National Hospital acute gynaecology ward and the ante-natal clinic.
SUBJECTS:
Seventy two women presenting with emesis up to 16 weeks gestation.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:
The levels of FT3, FT4, TSH and beta-hCG during the first 16 weeks of gestation. Correlation between the thyroid hormones and beta-hCG as well as the severity of vomiting was also done.
RESULTS:
The point prevalence of gestational thyrotoxicosis was 8.3%. There was a significant positive correlation between beta-hCG levels and FT3 and FT4 (P-values < 0.05), and a significant negative correlation between beta-hCG and TSH (P < 0.05). Correlation between the severity of vomiting and the thyroid hormones as well as beta-hCG was not statistically significant. Patients' age ranged from 14-38 years (median 26). Majority of the women studied were at a gestation of 8 to 11 weeks (38.9%). Most patients (84.7%) had one to five episodes of vomiting per day. Peak beta-hCG was at 12-15 weeks gestation.
CONCLUSIONS:
Thyrotoxicosis does occur among women with emesis in pregnancy in this set-up. Screening for it may be beneficial to such women and also those with high serum beta-hCG levels above the median for the gestational age.

OBJECTIVES:
To determine the thyroid profile and the prevalence of gestational thyrotoxicosis among women with emesis during early pregnancy.

DESIGN:
A descriptive cross-sectional study.

SETTING:
Kenyatta National Hospital acute gynaecology ward and the ante-natal clinic.

SUBJECTS:
Seventy two women presenting with emesis up to 16 weeks gestation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:
The levels of FT3, FT4, TSH and beta-hCG during the first 16 weeks of gestation. Correlation between the thyroid hormones and beta-hCG as well as the severity of vomiting was also done.

RESULTS:
The point prevalence of gestational thyrotoxicosis was 8.3%. There was a significant positive correlation between beta-hCG levels and FT3 and FT4 (P-values < 0.05), and a significant negative correlation between beta-hCG and TSH (P < 0.05). Correlation between the severity of vomiting and the thyroid hormones as well as beta-hCG was not statistically significant. Patients' age ranged from 14-38 years (median 26). Majority of the women studied were at a gestation of 8 to 11 weeks (38.9%). Most patients (84.7%) had one to five episodes of vomiting per day. Peak beta-hCG was at 12-15 weeks gestation.

CONCLUSIONS:
Thyrotoxicosis does occur among women with emesis in pregnancy in this set-up. Screening for it may be beneficial to such women and also those with high serum beta-hCG levels above the median for the gestational age.

Throughout the world, prospecting for gemstone deposits is largely a primitive operation that does not involves scientific or systematic methods. In Taita Taveta district, most gemstones deposits are still found either by luck, or by direct visual inspection of outcrops or of the soil surface. However a wide range of methods are available to the prospector.

Prospecting methods include geological mapping, systematic eluvial test pitting, geophysical and geochemical prospecting. Remote sensing can also be used. It is important to understand perfectly the geological characteristics of gemstone deposits in order to be able to select the most efficient methods. In Taita Taveta, the combination of direct mapping, spectroradiometry, and soil geochemistry enables to delineate lithologies favourable to some gemstone deposits. On a local scale, computerised treatment of data obtained from systematic test pitting can assist in identifying possible secondary deposits, and to locate primary deposits.

Obective:To carry out an overview of the medical treatment of the benign prostatic hyperplasia using the combination drugs of alpha adrenergic uro-selective blockers(tamsulocin,alfuzocin) and the 5 alpha reductase iso-enzymes 1&2 inhibitor dutasteride . Data source :Review of researches don and those ongoing especially those sponsored and financed by GlaxoSmithcline in the multicenter international control trials. Data selction: Selected data from international researches on BPH from the following research groups MTOPS,PREDICT,PLESS,VCOOP,ALFIN,DUTASTERIDE 4-DATA 2004/PHASE 111a studies,COmbAT2007,SMART-1, also from GlaxoSmithkline data files.Data Extraction:Selection of research conclusions from various researches tested for clinical use by the international researchers.Data synthesis:From these the advantages of drug compliance  on clinical use on BPH was analysed.                                                                           

Introduction: Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) is a useful and cheap method of caring for low birth weight and premature newborn infants in economically underprivileged countries where access to incubators is limited. Data on knowledge of and barriers to this method amongst health care professionals are important in informing planning for newborn care health services but are largely lacking for African population.
Objective: This study aimed at assessing the knowledge of and barriers to Kangaroo Mother Care amongst health care providers in Kenya.
Method: A structured pretested questionnaire was administered to 155 health workers in Kenya to test the knowledge and barriers to KMC. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 15.0 for windows and results presented using tables, bar and pie charts.
Results: All the 155 health care professionals had heard of Kangaroo Mother Care. Almost half did not have sufficient information on benefits and requirements for KMC. Most respondents (91.2%) thought that personnel with special skills on the practice were needed to oversee it. The most common barriers to practice of Kangaroo Mother Care were inadequate skills (59%), uncooperative mothers (22%), reluctant health care provider (11%) and fear for the safety of the baby (8%).
Conclusion: Most of health professionals in Kenya are aware of Kangaroo Mother Care. Its practice is, however, hampered by their lack of know-how of its benefits, requirements and inadequate skills. Training programs to enlighten health care professionals are recommended

Histological and biochemical studies reveal that Launaea taraxacifoliadisplays chemoprotective effects against druginduced oxidative stress, neuronal death and alteration of brain microanatomy (Oweoye et al., 2015). In this issue of the Anatomy Journal Africa,Oweoye and Onwuka(2016)report further structural and chemical evidencethat extracts of this plant ameliorate lead induced neurotoxicity and postulate that theseneuroprotective effectsare due to its antioxidant activity. Anti oxidants protect against oxidative stress induced tissue damage. This suggests that extracts of this plant may affectmultiple organs. Readers of Anatomy Journal of Africa arethereforeencouraged to learn more about such plants and their potential effects.Launaea taraxacifolia,known as wild lettuce, is a leafy vegetable of the family of Asteraceae found in several African countries (Adebisi, 2004). The leaves are eaten fresh as salad or cooked as sauces. They are potential sources of nutrients because they are rich in flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, tarpenoids, tannins, steroids, saponins, cardemolides, β-catotenes; valuable minerals like copper, iron, zinc, sodium, magnesium, calcium, manganese, potassium and phosphorus; essential vitamins such as ascorbic acid, riboflavin, tecopherol; proteins; essential fatty acids and fibre (Adinortey et al., 2012; Gbadamosi et al., 2012; Olugbenga et al., 2015).The antiatherogenic effects of this plant are derived from its chemical composition which confer antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, hypotensive, hypoglycemic and free radical scavenging properties (Adewale et al., 2013; Adejuwon et al., 2014;Koukoui et al., 2015; Sanoussi et al., 2015). I advocate for more research on the compositin and therapeutic effects of this plant

The Basilar Artery (BA), usually terminates by dividing into two posterior cerebral arteries [1,2]. Variant terminations described include double posterior cerebral arteries and common trunks for Posterior Cerebral Arteries (PCA) and Superior Cerebellar Arteries (SCA) trifurcation, quadrifurcation and pentafurcation [3-5]. Such variant branching patterns of arteries predisposes them to atherosclerosis and aneurysms [6,7], and may complicate surgery at basilar bifurcation angle and clivus [8]. The abnormalities may also alter the relationships with and compress occulomotor nerve [9]. There are, however, few reports on variant termination of the basilar artery. We recently reported up to 5 branches. In all cases of trifurcation, qudrifurcation and pentafurcation, the variation was due to duplication and rostral shift of superior cerebellar artery [4]. Potentially, more than five branches is possible but hitherto unreported in spite its importance. This study, therefore investigated the pattern of termination of the basilar artery in a black Kenyan population, for cases where there were more than five terminal branches.

Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) is responsible for the transmission of the devastating Plasmodium falciparum (Haemosporida: Plasmodiidae) strain of malaria in Africa. This study investigated the relationship between climate and environmental conditions and An. gambiae s.l. larvae abundance and modelled the larval distribution of this species in Baringo County, Kenya. Mosquito larvae were collected using a 350-mL dipper and a pipette once per month from December 2015 to December 2016. A random forest algorithm was used to generate vegetation cover classes. A negative binomial regression was used to model the association between remotely sensed climate (rainfall and temperature) and environmental (vegetation cover, vegetation health, topographic wetness and slope) factors and An. gambiae s.l. for December 2015. Anopheles gambiae s.l. was significantly more frequent in the riverine zone (P < 0.05, r = 0.59) compared with the lowland zone. Rainfall (b = 6.22, P < 0.001), slope (b = - 4.81, P = 0.012) and vegetation health (b = - 5.60, P = 0.038) significantly influenced the distribution of An. gambiae s.l. larvae. High An. gambiae s.l. abundance was associated with cropland and wetland environments. Effective malaria control will require zone-specific interventions such as a focused dry season vector control strategy in the riverine zone.

Abstract: Femoral artery intima - media thickness is a reliable surrogate marker of atherosclerosis and is important for prediction of coronary and peripheral vascular disease, but is seldom reported among black Sub Saharan African populations. This study, therefore, aimed at describing the intima - media thickness of the femoral artery in relation with age, gender and some of its geometric factors. Materials for this study were obtained during autopsy from 208 adult black Kenyans (154 males, 54 females, mean age 36.4 years) who had died of non cardiovascular causes. Those with history of cardiovascular risk factors were excluded. Femoral artery was exposed by dissection. Terminal branching pattern was recorded, and length and bifurcation angle measured. Materials for determination of intima - media thickness were processed routinely for paraffin embedding and sectioning. Five micron sections were stained with Mason’s trichrome, examined with light microscope and pictures taken. The images were digitized and intimal and medial thickness determined according to the protocol by Nakashima et al. [1]. The mean intima - media thickness was 0.76 ± 0.016 mm. It increased with age and was higher in males than females; for trifurcations (0.95 ± 0.032 mm) and also short arteries and those with wide bifurcation angles. Age and gender differences and those between arterial trifurcation and bifurcation attained statistical significance. In conclusion, the mean femoral intima-media thickness of the black Kenyan population studied is higher than those reported for Caucasian populations, increases with age and is higher in males and cases of trifurcation. This suggests that the study population is susceptible to atherosclerosis and that variant terminal branching pattern constitutes a geometric risk factor for atherosclerosis. We recommend ultrasound screening for those at risk.

To measure HIV -1 seroprevalence in pregnant women in Nairobi. Design: Six serial surveys were carried out between November 1991 and April 1997. Methods: Women attending four Nairobi City Council clinics for first antenatal clinic visit answered a standard questionnaire on demographic histories and were screened for Hl'V-I. Results: Hlv-I seroprevalence rose from 12.1% at the first survey to 16.2% in the third survey, which finished in October 1993. No rise was seen in subsequent .surveys up to April 1997. Significant differences in seroprevalence was seen between women who said that their province of origin was Nyanza (22.4%), Western or Rift Valley Provinces (14.1 %), and the provinces to the east of the country (8.9%) [p

To measure HIV -1 seroprevalence in pregnant women in Nairobi. Design: Six serial surveys were carried out between November 1991 and April 1997. Methods: Women attending four Nairobi City Council clinics for first antenatal clinic visit answered a standard questionnaire on demographic histories and were screened for Hl'V-I. Results: Hlv-I seroprevalence rose from 12.1% at the first survey to 16.2% in the third survey, which finished in October 1993. No rise was seen in subsequent .surveys up to April 1997. Significant differences in seroprevalence was seen between women who said that their province of origin was Nyanza (22.4%), Western or Rift Valley Provinces (14.1 %), and the provinces to the east of the country (8.9%) [p

To monitor and analyse trends in HIV-1 seroprevalence among antenatal women in Nairobi, Kenya. Design: Six sequential surveys were carried out among antenatal clinic attenders at four Nairobi City Council health centres between November 1991 and April 1997. Methods: A total of 6828 women attending for first antenatal clinic visit were administered a standard questionnaire to obtain demographic information and were screened for HIV-1. Results: HIV-1 seroprevalence rose from 12.1% in the first survey to 16.2% in the third, completed in October 1993. No rise was observed in subsequent surveys, and seroprevalence among women under the age of 20 declined after the third survey. Significant differences in seroprevalence (P < 0.001) were observed in all survey rounds between women who reported that their province of origin was Nyanza (22.4% overall), compared with those from other provinces in western Kenya (14.1%), and the eastern group of provinces (8.9%). The rise in HIV-1 seroprevalence observed between 1991 and 1993 was almost entirely attributable to the rising seroprevalence among women from Nyanza. There were considerable differences in HIV-1 seroprevalence among the four health centres, partly accounted for by differences in the proportion of clinic attenders from different provinces of origin, which also changed significantly over time. Conclusions: HIV-1 seroprevalence has stabilized in antenatal women attending these health centres in Nairobi, and may be declining among women in the youngest age group. This may reflect stabilization of HIV-1 incidence, but further observation is required. The levels of infection among Nairobi residents reflect the evolution of the HIV epidemic in their provinces of origin, and changing client composition influences HIV-1 seroprevalence at different clinics. HIV sentinel surveillance should be carried out at multiple sites in large urban centres to monitor accurately the evolution of the HIV epidemic and the impact of control efforts in reducing transmission.

Antimalarial therapy is a major contributor to declining malaria morbidity and mortality. However, the high toxicity and low bioavailability of current antimalarials and emerging drug resistance necessitates drug-delivery research. We have previously developed glyceryl-dilaurate nanolipid carriers (GDL-NLCs) for antimalarial drug delivery. Here, we show evidence that GDL-NLCs themselves selectively target Plasmodium-infected red blood cells (iRBCs), and cause severe parasite impairment. The glyceryl-dilaurate lipid-moiety was important in the targeting. GDL-NLCs localized to the parasite mitochondrion and uptake led to mitochondrial-membrane polarization and Ca(2+) ion accumulation, ROS release, and stage-specific iRBC lysis. GDL-NLC treatment also resulted in externalization of iRBC-membrane phosphatidylserine and enhanced iRBC clearance by macrophages. GDL-NLC uptake disrupted the parasite-induced tubulovesicular network, which is vital for nutrient import by the parasite. Laser optical trap studies revealed that GDL-NLCs also restored iRBC flexibility. Such restoration of iRBC flexibility may help mitigate the vasculature clogging that can lead to cerebral malaria. We demonstrate the suitability of GDL-NLCs for intravenous delivery of antimalarial combinations artemether-clindamycin and artemether-lumefantrine in the murine model. Complete parasite clearance was achieved at 5-20% of the therapeutic dose of these combinations. Thus, this nanostructured lipid formulation can solubilize lipophilic drugs, selectively target and impair the parasite-infected red cell, and therefore constitutes a potent delivery vehicle for antimalarials.

The profound advances in the biomolecular sciences over the last decades have enabled similar advances in biomedicine. These advances have increasingly challenged our abilities to deploy them in an equitable and ethically acceptable manner. As such, it has become necessary and important to teach biomedical and scientific ethics to our students who will become the researchers, medical professionals, and global citizens of the future. As advances in the biosciences and medicine are made, developed, and used across the globe, our survival on an endangered planet requires global dialog and consensual action. To that end, a group of us from around the world have come together to describe the differing foundations of our ethical beliefs, and how ethical issues in biomedicine and in science are described and confronted in our countries. We hope to show the commonality in our beliefs and practices.

A cross sectional study of 115 patients admitted at the Department of Orthopedics, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya was carried out to determine the prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from infected wounds. The prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was 33.0 %. The drugs tested and their corresponding sensitivity was amoxycillin (13.2 %), co-amoxyclav (39.5 %), oxacillin (55.3 %), erythromycin (44.7 %), gentamicin (60.5 %), ciprofloxacin (62.2 %), minocycline (86.8 %), cefuroxime (57.9 %), and clidamycin (84.2 %). These results show the sensitivity profile of Staphylococcus aureus and can be used to choose suitable drugs in the management of wounds for hospitalized patients.

A cross sectional study of 115 patients admitted at the Department of Orthopedics, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya was carried out to determine the prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from infected wounds. The prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was 33.0 %. The drugs tested and their corresponding sensitivity was amoxycillin (13.2 %), co-amoxyclav (39.5 %), oxacillin (55.3 %), erythromycin (44.7 %), gentamicin (60.5 %), ciprofloxacin (62.2 %), minocycline (86.8 %), cefuroxime (57.9 %), and clidamycin (84.2 %). These results show the sensitivity profile of Staphylococcus aureus and can be used to choose suitable drugs in the management of wounds for hospitalized patients.

A cross sectional study of 115 patients admitted at the Department of Orthopedics, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya was carried out to determine the prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from infected wounds. The prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was 33.0 %. The drugs tested and their corresponding sensitivity was amoxycillin (13.2 %), co-amoxyclav (39.5 %), oxacillin (55.3 %), erythromycin (44.7 %), gentamicin (60.5 %), ciprofloxacin (62.2 %), minocycline (86.8 %), cefuroxime (57.9 %), and clidamycin (84.2 %). These results show the sensitivity profile of Staphylococcus aureus and can be used to choose suitable drugs in the management of wounds for hospitalized patients.

A cross sectional study of 115 patients admitted at the Department of Orthopedics, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya was carried out to determine the prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from infected wounds. The prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was 33.0 %. The drugs tested and their corresponding sensitivity was amoxycillin (13.2 %), co-amoxyclav (39.5 %), oxacillin (55.3 %), erythromycin (44.7 %), gentamicin (60.5 %), ciprofloxacin (62.2 %), minocycline (86.8 %), cefuroxime (57.9 %), and clidamycin (84.2 %). These results show the sensitivity profile of Staphylococcus aureus and can be used to choose suitable drugs in the management of wounds for hospitalized patients.